Editing Māori culture (section)

== History ==
{{main|Māori history}}
Māori cultural history intertwines inextricably with the culture of [[Polynesia]] as a whole. The New Zealand archipelago forms the southwestern corner of the [[Polynesian Triangle]], a major part of the [[Pacific Ocean]] with three island groups at its corners: the [[Hawaiian Islands]], Rapa Nui ([[Easter Island]]), and New Zealand ([[Aotearoa]] in [[Māori language|te reo Māori]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.maori.com/aotearoa|title= Aotearoa – The Maori Name for New Zealand|publisher= Maori Tourism Limited|work= maori.com|access-date= 2017-07-27}}</ref> The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages descended from a [[Proto-Polynesian language]], which itself descends from a [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language]] used in southeastern Asia 5,000 years ago. Polynesians also share cultural traditions such as religion, social organisation, myths, and [[material culture]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Polynesia|title= Polynesian culture {{!}} cultural region, Pacific Ocean|encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date= 2017-07-27}}</ref> Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians descend from a South Pacific proto-culture developed by an [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] (Malayo-Polynesian) people who had migrated from southeastern Asia. Other significant Polynesian cultures include those of [[Easter Island|Rapa Nui]] (now known as Easter Island), [[Hawaii]], the [[Marquesas]], [[Samoa]], [[Tahiti]], [[Tonga]], and the [[Cook Islands]]. Over the last five millennia, proto-Polynesians and their descendants performed a sequence of complicated and remarkable transoceanic treks in an unprecedented accomplishment of navigation and curiosity. The final ocean travel included long distances to Hawaii, Rapa Nui, and Aotearoa.<ref>{{cite book|last= Somerville|first= Alice Te Punga|title= Once Were Pacific: Maori Connections to Oceania|year= 2009|publisher= University of Minnesota Press|location= Minneapolis|page= 17}}</ref>

===Archaic period c. 1300 AD===
{{main|New Zealand archaeology}}
[[File:Early Maori objects from Wairau Bar, Canterbury Museum, 2016-01-27.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Early Māori objects similar to Polynesian forms ([[Wairau Bar]], [[Marlborough Region|Marlborough]]), note the volcanic glass from the North Island (top left)]]
[[File:Maori man wearing kahu kuri, c. 1860–1880 (1).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Traditional formal dress of the Classic/contact period, including a dog-skin cloak ({{lang|mi|kahu kurī}}), and a {{lang|mi|mere}} or {{lang|mi|[[patu]]}} (short edged weapon).]]
Researchers often label the time from about 1280 to about 1450 the Archaic period or "Moa-hunter period" – after the [[moa]], the large flightless bird that formed a large part of the diet of the early Polynesian settlers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Barber|first=Ian |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_104_1995/Volume_104,_No._4/Constructions_of_change:_A_history_of_early_Maori_culture_sequences,_by_Ian_Barber,_p_357-396/p1|access-date=2018-12-13|year=1995 |title=Constructions of Change: A History of Early Maori Culture Sequences|journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society|volume=104|issue=4|pages=357–396}}</ref> The immigrants brought many edible plants from their home islands in the central Pacific, and of these [[Sweet potato|''kūmara'' (sweet potato)]] would become the most important as the colder climate meant that tropical staple crops needed careful cultivation to survive, and some failed to grow locally. The {{lang | mi |  kūmara}} became associated in several Polynesian
and Maori myth traditions<ref>
For some of the "numerous" different kūmara myths, compare:
{{cite book
 |last1                = Reed 
 |first1               = Alexander Wyclif
 |author-link1         = Alexander Wyclif Reed
 |editor-last1         = Calman
 |editor-first1        = Ross
 |editor-link1         = Ross Calman
 |year                 = 2008
 |orig-date            = 2004
 |chapter              = kūmara
 |title                = Earth, Ocean, Sky: Te Ao Tūroa
 |series               = Traditional Maori Stories, volume 2
 |location             = North Shore (Auckland)
 |publisher            = Penguin
 |pages                 = 41–51
 |isbn                 = 9780143010036
}} 
</ref> with Rongomātāne ([[Rongo|Rongo-mā-Tāne]] or Rongo) a high-ranking {{lang | mi | atua}} ([[List of Māori deities|god]]) in several [[Polynesian narrative|Polynesian]] pantheons as the patron of agriculture/horticulture – and who had particular associations with sweet potatoes.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Wilkinson
 |first1               = Philip
 |author-link1         = Philip Wilkinson (author)
 |last2                = Philip
 |first2               = Neil
 |year                 = 2007
 |title                = Mythology
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=nrjQMY690gsC
 |series               = Eyewitness Companions
 |location             = London
 |publisher            = Dorling Kindersley Limited
 |page                 = 311
 |isbn                 = 9781405318204
 |access-date          = 9 February 2023
 |quote                = [...] Rongo is the Polynesian god of agriculture and cultivated foods, particularly associated with kumara (sweet potatoes). Rongo is his Maori name; in Hawaii he is known as Lono, in the Marquesas as Ono [...].
}} 
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Jordan
 |first1               = Michael
 |date                 = 14 May 2014
 |title                = Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=aqDC5bwx4_wC
 |series               = Library of Religion and Mythology
 |publisher            = Infobase Publishing
 |page                 = 267
 |isbn                 = 9781438109855
 |access-date          = 9 February 2023
 |quote                = Rongomatane God of agriculture. Polynesian (including Maori). He is the father of cultivated food and the special gardener of the kumara or sweet potato which is a vital crop in Polynesia.
}} 
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Weiner
 |first1               = James
 |editor-last1         = Willis
 |editor-first1        = Roy
 |year                 = 1996
 |orig-date            = 1993
 |chapter              = Oceania: Myths of the Maori
 |title                = World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=9IgbAQAAMAAJ
 |location             = Landon
 |publisher            = Duncan Baird Publishers
 |pages                 = 294–295
 |isbn                 = 9781900131056
 |access-date          = 2 February 2023
 |quote                = Rongo, the god of cultivated foods [...] God of cultivated plants [...]
}} 
</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/kumara/page-4|title= Kūmara – Religious aspects|last= Adds|first= Peter|encyclopedia= Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date= 1 November 2013 | quote = Much of the activity to produce kūmara became ritualised – it was even associated with Rongomātāne (Rongo), a high-ranking atua (god).}}</ref>

These early colonists explored New Zealand to find suitable stones for tool-making. The main stone-source areas included [[Mayor Island]], Taupō and Kerikeri for [[obsidian]] (volcanic glass); prospectors soon found {{lang|mi|[[pounamu]]}} (greenstone or [[jade]]) and {{lang|mi|pakohe}} ([[argillite]]) resources in the South Island in the areas of present-day Reefton and Nelson.<ref name="DNZB Duff" /> Basalt was later also found which is prospected to have a use in construction.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/publications/factsheets/rare-ecosystems/subterranean-or-semi-subterranean/subterranean-basalt-fields|title= Subterranean basalt fields|website= Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research|access-date= 2020-03-26|archive-date= 6 April 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200406153555/http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/publications/factsheets/rare-ecosystems/subterranean-or-semi-subterranean/subterranean-basalt-fields|url-status= dead}}</ref> Stone served in all aspects of Polynesian life: from chopping wood to cutting and slicing food, as anchors for {{lang|mi|waka}} (canoes) and for fishing nets, for retaining the heat in a {{lang|mi|hāngi}}, as drills using chert, and for stone clubs. These practices, well preserved at the [[Wairau Bar]] [[New Zealand archaeology|archeological site]], were typical of East Polynesian culture at the same time.<ref name="DNZB Duff">{{DNZB|last= Davidson|first= Janet|id=5d27|title= Roger Shepherd Duff|access-date= 23 April 2017}}</ref>

Two Polynesian artefacts link early settlers to Polynesia. One, a turret shell only found in the South Pacific islands, most notably in the Society Islands, has been reworked into a small chisel found at Wairau Bar and dated to about 1300.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Davidson|first1= Janet|last2= Findlater|first2= Amy|last3= Fyfe|first3= Roger|last4= MacDonald|first4= Judith|last5= Marshall|first5= Bruce|title= Connections with Hawaiki: the Evidence of a Shell Tool from Wairau Bar, Marlborough, New Zealand|journal= Journal of Pacific Archaeology|year= 2011|volume= 2}}</ref> The other is a 6&nbsp;cm-long Polynesian pearl fishing-lure found at Tairua in 1962. This lure has been reliably dated to the early- to mid-14th century. It was found at a typical small coastal moa-hunters' site which has been interpreted as an itinerant hunting camp ({{lang|mi|whakaruruhau}}).<ref>CFG Heritage Ltd. [[Louise Furey]]. 2009. Report to Historical Places Trust.2009.</ref> The discovery of Mayor Island [[obsidian]] on the [[Kermadec Islands]], halfway between New Zealand and Tonga, strongly suggests that return journeys were made.{{sfn|King|2003|page=48}}

The new land also provided new opportunities: Māori learned to use local resources like [[pounamu]], native timber, {{lang|mi|[[harakeke]]}} and the abundant birdlife, producing practical tools or food, as well as beautiful ornaments and items of clothing. This adaptation to the opportunities and challenges of the new environment led to the development of the Classic Māori culture.

=== Classic period c. 1500 AD ===
[[File:Hinepare.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Traditional formal dress of the Classic/contact period. A {{lang|mi|[[hei-tiki]]}} around her neck, {{lang|mi|[[pounamu]]}} earring and shark tooth earring, and two {{lang|mi|[[huia]]}} feathers in her hair.]]
Māori artifacts began to change around the 15th century from an East Polynesian style to one more recognisably "classic" Māori,{{sfn|King|2003|page= 71, 79}} a style which persisted well into the contact period in the 18th and 19th centuries. At the same time, Māori groups became less [[nomadic]], more settled in defined territories, and more dependent on gardening as a food source. Reliance on stored food such as kūmara tubers meant that stores needed to be protected from marauding neighbours. The widespread construction of large fortifications called {{lang|mi| [[pā]]}} on prominent hills and spurs dates from this time, as evidence of the development of a more martial, [[tribal]] culture.{{sfn|King|2003|page= 72}} Not all aspects of this culture occurred universally, particularly in the South Island where kūmara could not be easily grown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1= Bunce|first1= Michael|last2= Beavan|first2= Nancy R.|last3= Oskam|first3= Charlotte L.|last4= Jacomb|first4= Christopher|last5= Allentoft|first5= Morten E.|last6= Holdaway|first6= Richard N.|date= 2014-11-07|title= An extremely low-density human population exterminated New Zealand moa |journal= Nature Communications|volume= 5|pages= 5436|bibcode= 2014NatCo...5.5436H|doi= 10.1038/ncomms6436|issn= 2041-1723|pmid= 25378020|doi-access= free}}</ref>

=== European colonisation from c. 1800 AD ===
Māori had encounters with European explorers from ships captained by [[Abel Tasman]] in 1642, [[James Cook]] three times between 1769 and 1777, [[Jean-François de Surville]] in 1769 and [[Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne|Marian du Fresne]] in 1772 which included violent encounters and also trade and exchange.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |first1=Vincent |last1=O'Malley |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/973833840 |title=The Treaty of Waitangi Companion : Maori and Pakeha from Tasman to Today. |last2=Stirling |first2=Bruce |last3=Penetito |first3=Wally |date=2014 |publisher=Auckland University Press |isbn=978-1-86940-681-3 |oclc=973833840}}</ref> Māori learnt of firearms during these encounters; it is believed the first firearms were acquired by [[Bay of Islands]] Māori around 1806.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Mikaere |first=Buddy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |others=Danny Keenan |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |chapter=Musket Wars, Migrations, New Tribal Alignments |oclc=779490407}}</ref>

After the European explorers, encounters at the turn of the century in Aotearoa were with whaling ships from America, France, Norway, Spain, and the British corporation the [[East India Company]] who visited regularly, setting conditions for a period of trade.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=78–100}}</ref> Māori travelled overseas from the late 1790s with chiefs going to Sydney 'in search of bartering opportunities', and some working on various types of ships travelling to Britain, Australia and America.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019 |title=Māori explore the world |language=en-NZ |work=NZ History |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/encounters/maori-encountering-world |access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref>{{Sfn|O'Malley|Stirling|Penetito|2014|p=19}}<ref name=":6" /> Small numbers of European whalers, sealers, traders, escaped convicts from Australia and runaway sailors established themselves especially in [[Northland Region|Northland]] and very south of New Zealand with the first Pākehā settlement at [[Doubtful Sound / Patea|Doubtful Sound Patea]] in 1792.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rewi |first=Poia |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |others=Danny Keenan |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |chapter=An Active and Functioning Language |oclc=779490407}}</ref> The first [[Christian mission]]s clustered in the Bay of Islands: with [[Samuel Marsden]], the senior [[Church of England]] chaplain in [[New South Wales]] fostering the foundation of the first [[mission station]] in Aotearoa in 1814–15.{{sfn|O'Malley|2012|page= 220}}<ref name=":7" /><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Marshall
 |first1               = Thomas William M
 |year                 = 1863
 |chapter              = Missions in the Antipodes
 |title                = Christian, Missions: Their Agents, and Their Results
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=mbz_EZtDrGkC
 |volume               = 1
 |edition              = 2
 |location             = London
 |publisher            = Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green
 |page                 = 424
 |access-date          = 16 February 2023
 |quote                = The mission of New Zealand was founded by Mr. Marsden in 1814, after unsuccessful attempts by others in 1800, and 1807.
}} 
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Yates
 |first1               = Timothy
 |author-link1         = Timothy Yeats
 |year                 = 2013
 |chapter              = Maori and Missionaries: Early CMS Interaction, 1814–1823
 |title                = The Conversion of the Maori: Years of Religious and Social Change, 1814–1842
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=_-wW8a3_ibwC
 |series               = Studies in the History of Christian Missions
 |location             = Grand Rapids, Michigan
 |publisher            = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
 |page                 = 22
 |isbn                 = 9780802869456
 |access-date          = 16 February 2023
 |quote                = Marsden had purchased 200 acres for the mission in exchange for twelve axe heads [...]. By the time of the purchase (13 February 1815) [...].
}} 
</ref>
Marsden's party introduced horses and cattle.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = McNab
 |first1               = Robert
 |author-link1         = Robert McNab
 |year                 = 1914
 |title                = From Tasman to Marsden: A History of Northern New Zealand from 1642 to 1818
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8QxAQAAMAAJ
 |publisher            = J. Wilkie
 |page                 = 171
 |access-date          = 16 February 2023
 |quote                = Of live stock, there was on board one entire horse and two mares, one bull and two cows [...].
}} 
</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Kingi |first=Tanira |date=24 Nov 2008 |title=Changes to Māori agriculture |language=en-NZ |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/ahuwhenua-maori-land-and-agriculture/page-1 |access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref>

With trade and travel Māori shifted to intensive horticulture and pastoral agriculture and as early as 1803 Maori were trading goods such as potatoes, pigs and maize. Māori invested in ploughs, mills, carts, and ships to transport their goods.<ref name=":8" /> The first Māori water-powered mill was built at Aotea, [[Raglan, New Zealand|Raglan Harbour]] in 1846<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvZyAAAAMAAJ |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End |publisher=Penguin |year=1990 |isbn=9780140132403 |publication-date=1990 |page=101 |quote=The first Maori water-powered mill was built at Aotea in 1846. |author-link1=Ranginui Walker |access-date=26 February 2022}} 
</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NZ History of Wheat Milling {{!}} NZFMA |url=https://flourinfo.co.nz/learn/nz-history-wheat-milling |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=flourinfo.co.nz}}</ref> and many more had been built by 1860.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Journal of the Polynesian Society: Maori Flour Mills Of The Auckland Province, 1846–1860, By R. P. Hargreaves, P 227-232 |url=https://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_70_1961/Volume_70,_No._2/Maori_flour_mills_of_the_Auckland_Province,_1846-1860,_by_R._P._Hargreaves,_p_227-232 |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=www.jps.auckland.ac.nz}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=99–101}}</ref>

Early industry by Māori was in part driven by the desire to trade for firearms.<ref name=":7" /> The [[Musket Wars]] (of 1807–1837) significantly altered intertribal conflict and there was seen a dramatic increase in casualties with many thousands of Māori people killed, some estimates over 60,000.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=81}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Taonga |first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu |title=Musket wars |language=en |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/musket-wars |access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref>

Populations of Māori to Europeans changed greatly during the 1800s. [[Henry Williams (missionary)|Henry Williams]] estimated in 1839 only a 1100 Europeans in the North Island, with 200 of them missionaries, and a total of about 500–600 Europeans in the [[Bay of Islands]].{{sfn|O'Malley|2012|page=101}} The northern Māori population at the time has been estimated at 30,000 to 40,000, down from about 100,000 fifty years before.<ref name=":1" /> This drop in population was mostly due to the introduction of European diseases ([[measles]] and [[influenza]]) and to the Musket Wars.<ref>{{Cite web | url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/171949 | title= 2. – Taupori Māori – Māori population change – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand | publisher= New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga | website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] | access-date= 2019-01-11 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Pākehā population doubled in the 1850s, surpassing the Māori population by the late 1860s, 1896 Māori population was about 40,000 and Pākehā was 700,000.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Ranginui |title=Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0143019457 |edition=2004 revised |pages=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Māori and European population numbers, 1838–1901 |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/maori-and-european-population-numbers-1838%E2%80%931901 |website=NZ History}}</ref>

Alcohol was not present in Māori culture before European contact. Many Māori supported [[Henry Williams (missionary)|Henry Williams]] who opposed "the activities of grog-sellers, gun-runners and other irreligious Europeans in the Bay of Islands". The mission at "[[Paihia]], directly opposite the notoriously lawless settlement of [[Kororāreka]] (later Russell), [was set up] to contrast Christianity with the decadent forms of European life".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lineham |first1=Peter J. |title=Missions and missionaries – First years of the CMS mission |website=[[Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/missions-and-missionaries/page-3 |access-date=July 24, 2021}}</ref>

European settlers brought their culture about sexuality and sexual violence to New Zealand. Sex within Māori culture was an open discussion, people chose their own sexual partners and 'accepted that sex before marriage occurred'.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Else |first=Anne |date=20 Jun 2018 |title=Gender inequalities – Sexuality' |language=en-NZ |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/gender-inequalities/page-2 |access-date=2023-02-06}}</ref> In Māori society assault on a woman was a serious offence<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mikaere |first=Ani |url= |title=Mana wahine reader. Volume II, A collection of writings 1999–2019 |date=2019 |others=Leonie Pihama, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Naomi Simmonds, Joeliee Seed-Pihama, Kirsten Gabel | publisher = Te Kotahi Research Institute |isbn=978-0-9951290-0-9 |location=Hamilton, Aotearoa/New Zealand |chapter=Colonisation and the Imposition of Patriarchy |oclc=1305027496}}</ref> different to English laws. Before 1896 under English law the age of consent was 12 years old and incest was not considered a crime. European settlers had double standards of it being more acceptable for men to have sex outside of marriage, women were blamed for prostitution and rape was rarely prosecuted.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] ethos that came with colonisation undermined the role of women in Māori society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yates-Smith |first=Aroha |url= |title=Mana wahine reader. Volume II, A collection of writings 1999–2019 |date=2019 |others=Leonie Pihama, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Naomi Simmonds, Joeliee Seed-Pihama, Kirsten Gabel | publisher = Te Kotahi Research Institute |isbn=978-0-9951290-0-9 |location=Hamilton, Aotearoa/New Zealand |chapter=Reclaiming the Ancient Feminine in Māori Society |oclc=1305027496}}</ref>

Many Māori started adopting the Christian faith from 1830s onwards, over time creating a uniquely Māori Christianity.<ref name=":6" /> Burial practices changed to incorporate aspects of [[Christianity]]. Bodies were usually buried in the ground by the mid-1840s, although sometimes coffins decorated with Māori motifs were used, suspended in trees or on poles as drawn by [[Joel Samuel Polack|J. Polack]]. These were highly {{lang|mi|tapu}}.{{sfn|Moon|2014|page=147}}{{sfn|Moon|2014|page=195}}

[[Slaves]] ({{lang|mi|taurekareka}} or {{lang|mi|mōkai}}) were members of rival tribes who had been taken prisoner during warfare and were made to work on non-{{lang|mi|tapu}} activities.{{sfn|O'Malley|2012|page= 127}} The term {{lang|mi|taurekareka}} was also used to denote something abhorrent and signifies the complete loss of {{lang|mi|mana}} of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://teara.govt.nz/en/turanga-i-te-hapori-status-in-maori-society/page-1|title=1. – Tūranga i te hapori – status in Māori society – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand |publisher= New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=2019-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|website=maoridictionary.co.nz |url=https://maoridictionary.co.nz/search?idiom=&phrase=&proverb=&loan=&histLoanWords=&keywords=taurekareka |title=taurekareka – Māori Dictionary|access-date=2019-01-13}}</ref> During the period of the [[Musket Wars]] the number of slaves taken as prisoners increased immensely and became an important part of some tribes' social structure.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Petrie|first=H.|title=Outcasts of the Gods. The struggle over slavery in Maori Society NZ |chapter= 9|year=2015|publisher=Auckland University Press |location=Auckland}}</ref>

Māori hapū of the north and Britain proclaimed the [[Sovereignty|sovereign independence]] of New Zealand in 1835 with the signing of [[Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand|He Whakaputanga]] (The Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand). A follow-up to this was the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] that was first signed in 1840, in part that the Queen of England could control her 'lawless subjects'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutu |first=Margaret |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |others=Danny Keenan |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |pages=98 |chapter=Custom Law and the Advent of New Pākehā Settlers |oclc=779490407}}</ref> New Zealand was proclaimed a [[Colony of New Zealand|British colony]] in 1841, and the [[New Zealand Parliament]] was established in 1852. Māori had no representation in the early years (1854–[[First Māori elections|1868]]) of the New Zealand Parliament. Votes for the members of Parliament required individual land-ownership so Māori were not able to vote as they owned land collectively. [[Ranginui Walker]] states that this "institutionalisation of racism at the inception of democracy in New Zealand was the root cause of the conflict between Māori and Pākehā in the North Island and the colonial spoliation which followed".<ref>{{cite book |last1= Walker |first1= Ranginui |title= Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou Struggle Without End |date= 1990 |publisher= Penguin |isbn= 0143019457 |pages= 85 and 111 |edition= 2004 revised}}</ref>

Māori customs, rules and values, known as ''tikanga,'' were not recognised in parliament and there was an assumption that European values and traditions were superior. The "judiciary simply denied that tikanga existed, the legislative suppressed aspects of tikanga, and together they altered the social structures of Māori in which tikanga existed, the overall effect being the social, economic, spiritual and political degradation of Māori society. To this day Māori society has still not recovered from this suppression of tikanga."<ref>{{cite web |last1= Gallagher |first1= Timoti |title= Tikanga Māori Pre-1840 |url= http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bid001Kahu-t1-g1-t1.html |website= Te Kāhui Kura Māori, Volume 0, Issue 1 |publisher=University of Wellington |access-date=July 24, 2021}}</ref>

Land-ownership issues became some of the most transformative influences of the 19th century. In Māori culture collective ownership was the norm: Māori people hold a deep respect for, spiritual connection to, and responsibility for the land as ''[[tangata whenua]]'' (people of the land).<ref name="otago.ac.nz" /> As the government sought land for newly arriving immigrants, laws like the [[Native Lands Act 1865]] changed the relationship Māori had with land. In 1870 [[Minister of Justice (New Zealand)|Justice Minister]] [[Henry Sewell]] (in office 1870–1871) described the aims of the Native Land Court as "to bring the great bulk of the lands in the Northern Island [...] within the reach of colonisation" and "the detribalisation of the Māori – to destroy, if it were possible, the principle of communism upon which their social system is based and which stands as a barrier in the way of all attempts to amalgamate the Māori race into our social and political system."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taonui |first1=Rāwiri |title=Te ture – Māori and legislation – The Native Land Court |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/te-ture-maori-and-legislation/page-3 |website=[[Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date= 26 February 2021 | quote = The Native Lands Acts 1862 and 1865 established the Native Land Court. This freed up more land for purchase by settlers as it individualised Māori land title. Justice minister Henry Sewell described the aims of the court as, 'to bring the great bulk of the lands in the Northern Island … within the reach of colonisation' and 'the detribalisation of the Māori – to destroy, if it were possible, the principle of communism upon which their social system is based and which stands as a barrier in the way of all attempts to amalgamate the Māori race into our social and political system.'}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century these goals were largely met – to the detriment of Māori culture.

===Marginalisation and renaissance c. 1900 AD to today===
{{See also|Māori renaissance}}[[File:Haka party, waiting to perform for Duke of York in Rotorua, 1901 - cropped.jpg|thumb|{{lang|mi|[[Haka]]}} party, waiting to perform for [[George V|Duke of York]] in Rotorua, 1901]]
[[File:Waitangi Day.jpg|thumb|Traditional Māori [[Waitangi Day]] celebrations at Waitangi]]
[[File:Māori protest at Waitangi (February 6, 2006).jpg|thumb|Māori protesters near Waitangi on Waitangi Day, the national day of New Zealand]]
Māori continued to experience significant cultural change into the next century.

In 1900 few Māori lived in European urban settlements, in 1926 there were 16% of Māori populations in urban centres, during World War II there was a shift and in 1945 it changed to 26% and it increased over the 1950s and 60s, so by 1966 it was 62%.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taonui |first=Rawiri |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/779490407 |title=Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero |date=2012 |publisher=Huia |isbn=978-1-77550-009-4 |editor-last=Keenan |editor-first=Danny |location=Wellington, N.Z. |pages=232–233 |chapter=Māori Urban Protest Movements |oclc=779490407}}</ref>

During the 1930s and 1940s, MP [[Āpirana Ngata]] had passed land legislation to help Māori make better use of their remaining tribal land. Māori were handicapped in using and developing the land for modern agriculture as much Māori land was steep, remote, erosion-prone with high rainfall.{{sfn|King|2001|pages=101–107}} European farmers who owned their land freehold mechanised to gain higher productivity, using bank loans for the new equipment. Māori were unable to gain loans as their land was generally tribal land and could not be used for securing individual loans. Leasing land to European farmers gave Māori a steady income but this was spread among many people. Māori farming was often based on a different system of values and not driven by European goals of efficiency and high productivity.{{sfn|King|2001|page=103}}

Apart from jobs, another attraction to urban migration were the monetary, recreational and lifestyle attractions of the city. Many Māori felt that success lay in the city rather than the country. King describes this as a "fantasy contagion-the realty did not live up to the myth but this did not stop the fantasy or the migration".{{sfn|King|2001|page=104}}
Other changes were a rising birth rate. In 1955, the Māori birth rate was nearly double the European rate at 43.6 compared to 26 per 1000. At the same time, Māori had fewer qualifications. In 1956 6.5% of Māori held professional, managerial or clerical jobs compared to 26.7% non-Māori. As a result, only 3.36% of Māori earned 700 pounds or more per annum compared to 18.6% for non-Māori.{{sfn|King|2001|page=105}} Māori were significantly impacted by changing economic circumstances such as the drop in wool prices. This made Māori more vulnerable to economic and social deprivation. King says that the lower Māori educational attainment lead to lower income jobs, which led to lower income, poor housing, and poor health, which in turn led to higher rates of crime.{{sfn|King|2001|page=105}}

These ingredients were potential causes of racial tension. They were seen by the wider community as "Māori problems". By the 1970s and 1980s, enough urbanised Māori had reached positions of influence to bring about a gradual but radical change to the thinking of governments. Their advocacy was underscored by an increasing willingness to use [[Māori protest movement|vigorous protest to push Mana Māori]]. Young urban radicals beat up a group of university students taking a comical view of Māori dance.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://thespinoff.co.nz/atea/17-10-2017/mocking-the-haka-the-haka-party-incident-and-casual-racism-in-new-zealand/|title=Mocking the haka: The Haka Party Incident and 'casual' racism in New Zealand|date=2017-10-17|website=[[The Spinoff]] |access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref> Protestors occupied Bastion Point which was claimed as Māori land and resisted police arrest.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/eviction-of-protestors-from-bastion-point|title=Bastion Point protesters evicted {{!}} NZHistory, New Zealand history online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref> In Raglan local Māori protesters reclaimed ownership of land used as an airstrip and golf course.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/nga-ropu-tautohetohe-maori-protest-movements/page-3|title=3. – Ngā rōpū tautohetohe – Māori protest movements – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Tonga|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref>

From the early 1970s [[Māori protest movement|a new generation of radicals]] arose demanding more Māori influence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/maori-language-week/history-of-the-maori-language|title=Māori Language Week – History of the Māori language|date=30 July 2015|publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage}}</ref> Amongst the demands were for increased {{lang|mi|tino rangatiratanga}}. The expression, an abstraction of the word for aristocracy, had been coined by Henry Williams in the Treaty of Waitangi to convey the idea of "chieftainship". However, the term was often used by Māori to express the idea of political rights for all Māori, not just the {{lang|mi|rangatira}} class, or the idea of Māori sovereignty or Māori independence.

Educated urban Māori advocated the teaching of Māori language and the inclusion of a Māori point of view in all aspects of education. Māori began to express their ideas in new political movements with Māori voters switching from supporting the [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour party]] to alternatives such as the Māori led [[New Zealand First|New Zealand First party]] in 1992. The introduction of [[Mixed-member proportional representation|MMP]] (Mixed Member Proportional) elections in 1996 had the effect of giving minority groups of any shades, more influence. The 1996 election produced 14 Māori MPs with 3 in the cabinet. Māori MP [[Winston Peters]], was the deputy Prime minister.<ref>{{Cite news|work=[[Newshub]] |date=2017-10-24 |url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2017/10/winston-peters-to-become-deputy-prime-minister.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024052028/http://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2017/10/winston-peters-to-become-deputy-prime-minister.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 October 2017 |title=Winston Peters to become Deputy Prime Minister|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref>

This position set high expectations for positive results from the Treaty of Waitangi Tribunal which was set up to investigate Māori grievances against historical New Zealand governments in relation to the treaty. From the early 1990s a series of favourable outcomes from the treaty tribunal resulted in a large flow of capital in the form of land, primary resources and cash from the government to various Māori [[iwi]] (tribe or nation) and [[hapū]] (subtribe or clan).{{sfn|King|2001|pages=115–118}} A key concept was the continued occupation of an area of land (Ahi kā).<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/reports/viewchapter.asp?reportID=D5D84302-EB22-4A52-BE78-16AF39F71D91&chapter=188 |title=Ngai Tahu Land Report|publisher=[[Waitangi Tribunal]]|year=1991|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109084520/http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/reports/viewchapter.asp?reportID=D5D84302-EB22-4A52-BE78-16AF39F71D91&chapter=188 |archive-date=9 November 2013}}, 1991, waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz</ref> The largest tribal deals approached $1 billion although many were far smaller. This gave {{lang|mi|iwi}} and {{lang|mi|hapū}} organisations a source of financial security they had not had previously. To 2013 the total paid by government exceeds $4 billion. These resulted in a more cohesive tribal organisation as all assets went to tribal or hapū organisations. In 2012 it was estimated{{by whom|date=September 2020}} that the total value of Māori-controlled assets was about $400 billion. {{As of | 2018 | June}}, 70 settlements have reached the stage of being passed into legislation, with a further 45 settlements in various stages of negotiation.<ref>{{cite web|title= Annual Progress Report – Office of Treaty Settlements|date= 30 June 2018|url= https://www.govt.nz/assets/Documents/OTS/12-month-progress-report-1-July-2017-to-30-June-2018.pdf|access-date= 30 December 2018|archive-date= 30 December 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181230233301/https://www.govt.nz/assets/Documents/OTS/12-month-progress-report-1-July-2017-to-30-June-2018.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>