Editing Luxembourg (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Luxembourg}}

=== Before AD 963 ===
{{Main|Celtic Luxembourg}}

[[File:Codex aureus Epternacensis folio 24 2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Text page from the [[Codex Aureus of Echternach]], an important surviving codex, was produced in the [[Abbey of Echternach]] in the 11th century.<ref name="Beckwith, John 1979 pp. 122">{{cite book | last=Beckwith | first=John | title=Early Christian and Byzantine art | date=1979 | isbn=0-14-056133-1 | oclc=4774770 | page = 122| publisher=Penguin Books }}</ref>]]

The first traces of settlement in what is now Luxembourg are dated back to the [[Paleolithic Age]], about 35,000 years ago. From the 6th century BC, [[Celtic tribes]] settled in the region between the rivers [[Rhine]] and [[Meuse]].<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 9</ref>

Six centuries later the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] named the Celtic tribes inhabiting these exact regions collectively as the ''[[Treveri]]''. Many examples of archaeological evidence proving their existence in Luxembourg have been discovered, the most famous being the Oppidum of [[Titelberg]].

In around 58 to 51 BC, the Romans invaded the country when [[Julius Caesar]] [[Gallic Wars|conquered Gaul]] and part of [[Germania]] up to the Rhine border, thus the area of what is now Luxembourg became part of the [[Roman Empire]] for the next 450 years, living in relative peace under the [[Pax Romana]].

Similar to those in Gaul, the Celts of Luxembourg adopted Roman culture, language, morals and a way of life, effectively becoming what historians later described as [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman civilization]].<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 1988 (2013)p. 16</ref> Evidence from that period includes the [[Dalheim Ricciacum]] and the [[Vichten|Vichten mosaic]], on display at the [[National Museum of History and Art]] in Luxembourg City.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://collections.mnha.lu/object/mnha00110/1/LOG_0000/|title=Mosaïque de Vichten|website=-: Mosaïque de Vichten, -: – -.|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421144306/https://collections.mnha.lu/object/mnha00110/1/LOG_0000/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The territory was infiltrated by the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Franks]] from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406,<ref name=Trausch2003>{{cite book | last=Trausch | first=Gilbert | title=Histoire du Luxembourg: le destin européen d'un petit pays | publisher=Privat |location=Toulouse | date=2003 | isbn=2-7089-4773-7 | oclc=52386195 | language=fr}}</ref>{{rp|page = 65}} after which it became part of the [[Kingdom of the Franks]]. The Salian Franks who settled in the area are often described as the ones having brought the Germanic language to present-day Luxembourg, since the [[Frankish language|old Frankish]] language spoken by them is considered by linguists to be a direct forerunner of the [[Moselle Franconian language|Moselle Franconian dialect]], which later evolved into, among others, the modern-day [[Luxembourgish|Luxembourgish language]].<ref name=Trausch2003 />{{rp|page=70}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/europe/francique-map.htm|title=Francique|website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126024438/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/europe/francique-map.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Christianization]] of Luxembourg is usually dated back to the end of the 7th century. The most famous figure in this context is [[Willibrord]], a [[Northumbria]]n missionary saint, who together with other monks established the [[Abbey of Echternach]] in AD 698,<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 23</ref> and is celebrated annually in the [[dancing procession of Echternach]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Echternach |first=Willibrordus Basilika |title=Basilica & Willibrord |url=https://basilika.lu/en/ |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Willibrordus Basilika Echternach |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Abbey of Echternach |url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/abbey-of-echternach |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref> For a few centuries the abbey would become one of northern Europe's most influential abbeys.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-01 |title=The Echternach scriptorium |url=https://bnl.public.lu/en/a-la-une/a-la-loupe/2024/scriptorium-echternach.html |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=bnl.public.lu |language=en}}</ref> The [[Codex Aureus of Echternach]], an important surviving codex written entirely in gold ink, was produced here in the 11th century.<ref name="Beckwith, John 1979 pp. 122"/> The so-called [[Emperor's Bible]] and the [[Golden Gospels of Henry III]] were also produced in Echternach at this time.<ref>The Emperor's Bible". Uppsala University Library. Retrieved 17 October 2020</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Pauly | first=Michel | title=Geschichte Luxemburgs |location=München |publisher=Verlag C.H. Beck | date=2011 | isbn=978-3-406-62225-0 | oclc=724990605 | language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Emperor's Bible |url=https://www.alvin-portal.org/alvin/attachment/document/alvin-record%3A56059/ATTACHMENT-0328.pdf}}</ref>

=== Emergence and expansion (963–1312) ===
{{Main|County of Luxembourg}}

[[File:Charles IV-John Ocko votive picture-fragment.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]], the 14th-century Holy Roman Emperor and King of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] from the [[House of Luxembourg]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/fondation-du-luxembourg.html |title=Luxembourg's Origins |date=9 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124090014/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/fondation-du-luxembourg.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

When the [[Carolingian Empire]] was divided many times starting with the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, today's Luxembourgish territory became successively part of the [[Kingdom of Middle Francia]] (843–855), the [[Kingdom of Lotharingia]] (855–959) and finally of the [[Duchy of Lorraine]] (959–1059), which itself had become a state of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 26</ref>

The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of ''Lucilinburhuc''<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 20</ref> (today [[Luxembourg Castle]]) situated on the [[Bock (Luxembourg)|Bock]] rock by [[Siegfried of Luxembourg|Siegfried, Count of the Ardennes]], in 963 through an exchange act with [[St. Maximin's Abbey, Trier]].<ref>{{cite book |title=About... The History of Luxembourg |publisher=Information and Press Service of the Government |date=2022 |isbn=978-2-87999-298-3 |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/publications/ap-histoire.html |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124084539/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/publications/ap-histoire.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Around this [[Fortifications|fort]], a town gradually developed, which became the center of a state of great strategic value within the Duchy of Lorraine.<ref name="UNESCO, World Heritage Convention"/> Over the years, the fortress was extended by Siegfried's descendants and by 1083, one of them, [[Conrad I, Count of Luxembourg|Conrad I]], was the first to call himself a "[[Count of Luxembourg]]", and with it effectively creating the independent [[County of Luxembourg]] (which was still a state within the Holy Roman Empire).<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 28</ref>

By the middle of the 13th century, the counts of Luxembourg had managed to gain considerable wealth and power and had expanded their territory from the river [[Meuse]] to the [[Moselle]]. By the time of the reign of [[Henry V, Count of Luxembourg|Henry V the Blonde]], [[Bitburg]], [[La Roche-en-Ardenne]], [[Durbuy]], [[Arlon]], [[Thionville]], [[Marville, Meuse|Marville]], [[Longwy]], and in 1264 the competing [[County of Vianden]] (and with it [[St Vith]] and [[Schleiden]]) had either been incorporated directly or become [[vassal states]] to the County of Luxembourg.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.33-34</ref> The only major setback during their rise in power came in 1288, when [[Henry VI, Count of Luxembourg|Henry VI]] and his three brothers died at the [[Battle of Worringen]] while trying unsuccessfully to add the [[Duchy of Limburg]] to their realm. But despite the defeat, the Battle of Worringen helped the Counts of Luxembourg to achieve military glory, which they had previously lacked, as they had mostly enlarged their territory by means of inheritances, marriages and fiefdoms.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.35</ref>

The ascension of the Counts of Luxembourg culminated when [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VII]] became [[King of the Romans]], [[King of Italy]] and finally, in 1312, [[Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.37</ref>

=== Golden Age (1312–1443) ===
{{Main|Duchy of Luxembourg}}
[[File:Festungsplan.von.Luxemburg.jpg|thumb|left|Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg City's fortifications]]

With the ascension of Henry VII as Emperor, the dynasty of the [[House of Luxembourg]] not only began to rule the [[Holy Roman Empire]], but rapidly began to exercise growing influence over other parts of Central Europe as well.

Henry's son, [[John the Blind]], in addition to being Count of Luxembourg, also became [[King of Bohemia]]. He remains a major figure in Luxembourgish history and [[folklore]] and is considered by many historians the epitome of [[chivalry]] in medieval times. He is also known for having founded the [[Schueberfouer]] in 1340 and for his heroic death at the [[Battle of Crécy]] in 1346.<ref>Margue, Paul (1974). ''Luxemburg in Mittelalter und Neuzeit''. Editions Bourg-Bourger.</ref><ref>Gilbert Trausch, Le Luxembourg, émergence d'un état et d'une nation 2007 p. 93 Edition Schortgen</ref> John the Blind is considered a [[Folk hero|national hero]] in Luxembourg.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/helm-holy-roman-empire.html |title=At the Helm of the Holy Roman Empire |website=Luxembourg.lu |date=9 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124090017/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/helm-holy-roman-empire.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three more members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors and Bohemian Kings: John's descendants [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]], [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]] (who also was [[King of Hungary|King of Hungary and Croatia]]), and [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia|Wenceslaus IV]]. Charles IV created the long-lasting [[Golden Bull of 1356]], a decree which fixed important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Empire. Luxembourg remained an independent fief (county) of the Holy Roman Empire, and in 1354, Charles IV elevated it to the status of a [[duchy]] with his half-brother [[Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg|Wenceslaus I]] becoming the first [[Duke of Luxembourg]]. While his kin were occupied ruling and expanding their power within the Holy Roman Empire and elsewhere, Wenceslaus, annexed the [[County of Chiny]] in 1364, and with it, the territories of the new [[Duchy of Luxembourg]] reached its greatest extent.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 41</ref>

During these 130 years, the House of Luxembourg was contending with the [[House of Habsburg]] for supremacy within the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe. It all came to end in 1443, when the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne. Since Sigismund and [[Elizabeth of Görlitz]] were both heirless, all possessions of the Luxembourg Dynasty were redistributed among the European aristocracy.<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 39</ref> The Duchy of Luxembourg become a possession of [[Philip the Good]], [[Duke of Burgundy]].<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 44</ref>

As the House of Luxembourg had become extinct and Luxembourg now became part of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]], this would mark the start of nearly 400 years of foreign rule over Luxembourg.

=== Habsburg rule and French invasions (1444–1794) ===
{{See also|Fortress of Luxembourg}}

In 1482, [[Philip the Handsome]] inherited all of what became then known as the [[Habsburg Netherlands]], and with it the Duchy of Luxembourg. For nearly 320 years Luxembourg would remain a possession of the mighty House of Habsburg, at first under Austrian rule (1506–1556), then under [[Spanish Netherlands|Spanish rule (1556–1714)]], before going back again to [[Austrian Netherlands|Austrian rule (1714–1794)]].<br />
With having become a Habsburg possession, the Duchy of Luxembourg became, like many countries in Europe at the time, heavily involved in the many conflicts for dominance of Europe between the Habsburg-held countries and the [[Kingdom of France]].

In 1542, the [[King of France]], [[Francis I of France|François I]], invaded Luxembourg twice, but the Habsburgs under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] managed to reconquer the Duchy each time.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.53</ref>

Luxembourg became part of the [[Spanish Netherlands]] in 1556, and when France and Spain [[Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)|went to war in 1635]] it resulted in the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]], in which [[Partitions of Luxembourg|the first partition of Luxembourg]] was decided. Under the Treaty, Spain ceded the Luxembourgish fortresses of [[Stenay]], Thionville, and [[Montmédy]], and the surrounding territory to France, effectively reducing the size of Luxembourg for the first time in centuries.<ref name="Michel Pauly p.57">Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.57</ref>

In context of the [[Nine Years' War]] in 1684, [[Siege of Luxembourg (1684)|France invaded Luxembourg again]], conquering and occupying the Duchy until 1697 when it was returned to the Spanish to garner support for the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] cause during the prelude to the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. When the war broke out in 1701 Luxembourg and the Spanish Netherlands were administered by the pro-French faction under the governor [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria]] and sided with the Bourbons. The duchy was subsequently occupied by the pro-Austrian allied forces during the conflict and was awarded to Austria at its conclusion in 1714.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.58</ref>

As the Duchy of Luxembourg repeatedly passed back and forth from Spanish and Austrian to French rule, each of the conquering nations contributed to strengthening and expanding the [[Fortress of Luxembourg|Fortress]] that the Castle of Luxembourg had become over the years. One example of this includes French military engineer [[Marquis de Vauban]] who advanced the fortifications around and on the heights of the city, fortification walls that are still visible today.<ref name="Michel Pauly p.57"/>

=== French rule (1794–1815) ===
{{See also|Forêts|Secularism in France}}

During the [[War of the First Coalition]], [[First French Republic|Revolutionary France]] invaded the Austrian Netherlands, and with it, Luxembourg. In the years 1793 and 1794 most of the Duchy was conquered relatively quickly and the [[French Revolutionary Army]] committed many atrocities and pillages against the Luxembourgish civilian population and abbeys, the most infamous being the massacres of [[Differdange]] and [[Dudelange]], as well as the destruction of the abbeys of [[Clairefontaine Abbey|Clairefontaine]], [[Abbey of Echternach|Echternach]] and [[Orval Abbey|Orval]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://today.rtl.lu/luxembourg-insider/history/a/1715144.html|title=Dark Luxembourg: The French massacre of Differdange|access-date=6 October 2021|archive-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006182254/https://today.rtl.lu/luxembourg-insider/history/a/1715144.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://shenandoahdavis.canalblog.com/archives/2016/03/24/33560312.html|title = LUXEMBOURG – 17 mai 1794 – MASSACRE DE DUDELANGE – l'HORRIBLE FIN DE PIERRE GAASCH, GARDE-FORESTIER ... – la Maraîchine Normande|date = 24 March 2016|access-date = 6 October 2021|archive-date = 6 October 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211006182254/http://shenandoahdavis.canalblog.com/archives/2016/03/24/33560312.html|url-status = live}}</ref> However the Fortress of Luxembourg [[Siege of Luxembourg (1794–95)|resisted for nearly 7 months]] before the Austrian forces holding it surrendered. Luxembourg's long defence led [[Lazare Carnot]] to call Luxembourg "the best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar", giving rise to the city's nickname ''the Gibraltar of the North''.<ref name="Kreins 2003, p.64">Kreins (2003), p.64</ref>

Luxembourg was annexed by France, becoming the [[Forêts|''département des forêts'']] (department of forests), and the incorporation of the former Duchy as a ''département'' into France was formalized at the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] in 1797.<ref name="Kreins 2003, p.64"/>
From the start of the occupation the new French officials in Luxembourg, who spoke only French, implemented many republican reforms, among them the principle of [[laicism]], which led to an outcry in strongly Catholic Luxembourg. Additionally French was implemented as the only official language and Luxembourgish people were barred access to all civil services.<ref name="Michel Pauly p.65">Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.65</ref> When the French Army introduced military duty for the local population, riots broke out which culminated in 1798 when Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion.<ref name="Michel Pauly p.65"/> Even though the French managed to rapidly suppress this revolt called ''[[Peasants' War (1798)|Klëppelkrich]]'', it had a profound effect on the historical memory of the country and its citizens.<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 66</ref>

However, many republican ideas of this era continue to have a lasting effect on Luxembourg; one of the many examples features the implementation of the Napoleonic [[Napoleonic Code|Code Civil]] which was introduced in 1804 and is still valid today.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.67</ref>

=== National awakening (1815–1890) ===
{{See also|Luxembourg question}}
After the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|defeat]] of [[Napoleon]] in 1815, the Duchy of Luxembourg was restored. However, as the territory had been part of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the Habsburgian Netherlands in the past, both the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] and the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] now claimed possession of the territory. At the [[Congress of Vienna]] the great powers decided that Luxembourg would become a member state of the newly formed [[German Confederation]], but at the same time [[William I of the Netherlands]], the [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|King of the Netherlands]], would become, in [[personal union]], the head of state. To satisfy Prussia, it was decided that not only the [[Fortress of Luxembourg]] be manned by [[Prussian Army|Prussian troops]], but also that large parts of Luxembourgish territory (mainly the areas around Bitburg and St. Vith) become Prussian possessions.<ref>Johan Christiaan Boogman: Nederland en de Duitse Bond 1815–1851. Diss. Utrecht, J. B. Wolters, Groningen / Djakarta 1955, pp. 5–8.</ref> This marked the second time that the Duchy of Luxembourg was reduced in size, and is generally known as the [[Partitions of Luxembourg|Second Partition of Luxembourg]]. To compensate the Duchy for this loss, it was decided to elevate the Duchy to a [[Grand duchy|Grand-Duchy]], thus giving the Dutch monarchs the additional title of [[Grand-Duke of Luxembourg]]. However, from 1816 to 1830, [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] ignored the Duchy's sovereignty, treating Luxembourg as a conquered nation while subjecting Luxembourg to high taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-15 |title=Luxembourg - Grand Duchy, Europe, Charlemagne {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Luxembourg/History |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

After Belgium became an independent country following the victorious [[Belgian Revolution|Belgian Revolution of 1830–1831]], it claimed the entire Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg as being part of Belgium, however, the Dutch King who was also Grand Duke of Luxembourg, as well as Prussia, did not want to lose their grip on the mighty fortress of Luxembourg and did not agree with the Belgian claims.<ref>Michel Pauly Die Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 68</ref> The dispute would be solved at the [[Treaty of London (1839)|1839 Treaty of London]] where the decision of the [[Partitions of Luxembourg|Third Partition of Luxembourg]] was taken. This time the territory was reduced by more than half, as the predominantly [[francophone]] [[Luxembourg (Belgium)|western part of the country]] (but also the then Luxembourgish-speaking part of [[Arelerland]]) was transferred to the new state of Belgium, thereby giving Luxembourg its modern-day borders. The treaty of 1839 also established full independence of the remaining Germanic-speaking Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg.<ref>Thewes, Guy (2006) (PDF). Les gouvernements du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg depuis 1848 (2006), p. 208</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.landenweb.net/luxemburg/geschiedenis/ |title=LUXEMBURG Geschiedenis |publisher=Landenweb.net |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510190747/http://www.landenweb.net/luxemburg/geschiedenis/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2088.html|access-date=1 February 2013|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=27 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227190053/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2088.html}}</ref><ref>Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 1997</ref>

In 1842, Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union (''[[Zollverein]]'').<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 76</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Harmsen|first1=Robert|title=Luxembourg and the European Union|date=28 February 2020|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1041|isbn=978-0-19-022863-7|last2=Högenauer|first2=Anna-Lena}}</ref> This resulted in the opening of the German market, the development of [[Steel industry in Luxembourg|Luxembourg's steel industry]], and expansion of [[Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois|Luxembourg's railway network]] from 1855 to 1875.

After the [[Luxembourg Crisis]] of 1866 nearly led to war between Prussia and France, as both were unwilling to see the other taking influence over Luxembourg and its mighty fortress, the Grand Duchy's independence and neutrality were reaffirmed by the [[Treaty of London, 1867|Second Treaty of London]] and Prussia was finally willing to withdraw its troops from the Fortress of Luxembourg under the condition that the fortifications would be dismantled. That happened the same year.<ref>Kreins (2003), pp. 80–81</ref> At the time of the [[Franco-Prussian war]] in 1870, Luxembourg's neutrality was respected, and neither France nor Germany invaded the country.<ref>Maartje Abbenhuis, ''An Age of Neutrals: Great Power Politics, 1815–1914''. Cambridge University Press (2014) {{ISBN|978-1-107-03760-1}}</ref>

As a result of the recurring disputes between the major European powers, the people of Luxembourg gradually developed a consciousness of independence and a national awakening took place in the 19th century.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.75</ref> The people of Luxembourg began referring to themselves as ''[[Luxembourgers]]'', rather than being part of one of the larger surrounding nations. This consciousness of ''[[Mir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sinn]]'' ("''We want to remain what we are ")'' culminated in 1890, when the last step towards full independence was finally taken: due to a succession crisis the [[Dutch monarchy]] ceased to hold the title Grand-Duke of Luxembourg. Beginning with [[Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg|Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg]], the Grand-Duchy would have [[Nassau-Weilburg|its own monarchy]], thus reaffirming its full independence.<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 84</ref>

=== German occupations and interwar political crisis (1890–1945) ===
{{See also|German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I|German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II}}
[[File:Alsace-lorraine.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Frontier with Alsace-Lorraine from 1871 to 1918]]

In August 1914, during [[World War I]], [[Imperial Germany]] violated Luxembourg's [[Neutral country|neutrality]] by invading it to defeat France.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/premire-guerre-mondiale.html |title=The First World War: German Occupation and State Crisis |website=Luxembourg.lu |date=9 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124093753/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/premire-guerre-mondiale.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, despite the [[German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I|German occupation]], Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence and political mechanisms.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.83</ref> Unaware of the fact that Germany secretly planned to annex the Grand-Duchy in case of a German victory (the [[Septemberprogramm]]), the Luxembourgish government continued to pursue a policy of strict neutrality. However, the Luxembourgish population did not believe Germany had good intentions, fearing that it would annex Luxembourg. Around 1,000 Luxembourgers served in the French army;<ref>{{cite book |title=About... The History of Luxembourg |publisher=Information and Press Service of the Government |date=2022 |isbn=978-2-87999-298-3 |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/publications/ap-histoire.html |page=22 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124084539/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/publications/ap-histoire.html |url-status=live }}</ref> their sacrifices have been commemorated at the [[Gëlle Fra]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/gelle-fra.html|title=Gëlle Fra – a Hallmark of Society and Luxembourgish History|website=Luxembourg.lu|date=26 June 2023|access-date=24 January 2024|archive-date=24 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124093754/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/gelle-fra.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the war, Grand-Duchess [[Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg|Marie-Adélaïde]] was seen by many people (including the French and Belgian governments) as having collaborated with the Germans and calls for her abdication and the establishment of a Republic became louder.<ref name="Thewes 2003, p. 81">Thewes (2003), p. 81</ref><ref name="Kreins 2003, p. 89">Kreins (2003), p. 89.</ref> After the retreat of the [[German Imperial Army|German army]], communists in Luxembourg City and [[Esch-sur-Alzette]] tried to establish a [[Soviet republic (system of government)|soviet worker's republic]] similar to the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|ones emerging in Germany]], but these attempts lasted only 2 days.<ref name="Kreins 2003, p. 89"/><ref name="Thewes 2003, p. 81"/>
In November 1918, a motion in the [[Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)|Chamber of Deputies]] demanding the [[Abolition of monarchy|abolition of the monarchy]] was defeated narrowly by 21 votes to 19 (with three abstentions).<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.84</ref>

France questioned the Luxembourgish government's, and especially Marie-Adélaïde's, neutrality during the war, and calls for an annexation of Luxembourg to either France or Belgium grew louder in both countries.<ref name="Michel Pauly p.85">Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.85</ref> In January 1919, a company of the [[Luxembourgish Army]] rebelled, declaring itself to be the army of the new republic, but French troops intervened and put an end to the rebellion.<ref name="Michel Pauly p.85"/> Nonetheless, the disloyalty shown by her own armed forces was too much for Marie-Adélaïde, who abdicated in favour of her sister [[Grand Duchess Charlotte|Charlotte]] 5 days later.<ref>Dostert et al. (2002), p. 21</ref> The same year, in a [[1919 Luxembourg referendum|popular referendum]], 77.8% of the Luxembourgish population declared in favour of maintaining monarchy and rejected the establishment of a republic. During this time, Belgium pushed for an annexation of Luxembourg. However, all such claims were ultimately dismissed at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]], thus securing Luxembourg's independence.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brousse |first1=Hendry |title=Le Luxembourg de la guerre à la paix (1918–1923): la France, actrice majeure de cette transition |url=https://hal.univ-lorraine.fr/tel-02887753/document |website=hal.univ-lorraine.fr |access-date=18 April 2021 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303094710/https://hal.univ-lorraine.fr/tel-02887753/document |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1939, the Luxembourg army increased to 425 due to Nazi Germany presence. On May 9, 1940 Luxembourg closed the defensive [[Schuster Line|Schuster line]] with Germany; one day later, Luxembourg's neutrality was violated again when [[Nazi Germany]]'s ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' [[Invasion of Luxembourg|entered the country]] "entirely without justification".<ref>{{cite book |section=The invasion of Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxembourg |title=Judgment of the International Military Tribunal For The Trial of German Major War Criminals |location=London |publisher=HM Stationery Office |via=The Nizkor Project |date=1951 |url=http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi?imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-invasion-belgium |access-date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020203/http://www.nizkor.org/ftp.cgi?imt%2Ftgmwc%2Fjudgment%2Fj-invasion-belgium }}</ref> In contrast to the First World War, under the [[German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II]], the country was treated as German territory and informally annexed to the adjacent province of [[Nazi Germany]], [[Gau Moselland]]. This time, Luxembourg did not remain neutral as Luxembourg's [[Luxembourg government-in-exile|government in exile]] based in London supported the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], sending a small group of volunteers who participated in the [[Invasion of Normandy|Normandy invasion]], and multiple [[Luxembourgish Resistance|resistance groups]] formed inside the occupied country.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.zug-der-erinnerung.eu/dostert.html|title = Luxemburg unter deutscher Besatzung 1940–45: Die Bevölkerung eines kleinen Landes zwischen Kollaboration und Widerstand|last = Dostert|first = Paul|website = Zug der Erinnerung|language = de|access-date = 23 April 2021|archive-date = 2 June 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190602113318/http://www.zug-der-erinnerung.eu/dostert.html|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/second-world-war.html |title=The Second World War: the Toughest Ordeal |website=Luxembourg.lu |date=9 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124090016/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/second-world-war.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

With 2.45% of its prewar population killed, and a third of all buildings in Luxembourg being destroyed or heavily damaged (mainly due to the [[Battle of the Bulge]]), Luxembourg suffered the highest such loss in Western Europe, but its commitment to the Allied war effort was never questioned.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.102</ref> Around 1,000–2,500 of Luxembourg's Jews were murdered in [[the Holocaust in Luxembourg|the Holocaust]].

=== Integration into NATO and European Union (1945–) ===

The Grand Duchy became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourg's neutral status under the [[Constitution of Luxembourg|constitution]] formally ended in 1948, and in April 1949 it also became a founding member of [[NATO]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Luxembourg and NATO |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162355.htm |website=NATO |access-date=18 April 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414144211/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162355.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Cold War]], Luxembourg continued its involvements on the side of the [[Western Bloc]]. In the early fifties a small contingent of troops fought in the [[Korean War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://korea.mnhm.net/index.php/en/|title=D'Koreaner aus dem Lëtzebuerger Land (Koreans from Luxembourg)|access-date=24 January 2024|archive-date=24 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124093752/https://korea.mnhm.net/index.php/en/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to support [[ISAF]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.armee.lu/historique/l-armee-de-nos-jours/la-contribution-otan/isaf-international-security-and-assistance-force|title=ISAF (International Security and Assistance Force)|date=24 April 2023|access-date=24 April 2021|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427023157/https://www.armee.lu/historique/l-armee-de-nos-jours/la-contribution-otan/isaf-international-security-and-assistance-force}}</ref> Luxembourg won its first gold medal at the [[1952 Summer Olympics]] in Helsinki when [[Josy Barthel]] won the 1500 metres.

In the 1950s, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the [[European Communities]], following the 1952 establishment of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], and subsequent 1958 creations of the [[European Economic Community]] and [[European Atomic Energy Community]]. In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the European Union. With [[Robert Schuman]] (one of the founding fathers of the EU), [[Pierre Werner]] (considered the father of the [[Euro]]), [[Gaston Thorn]], [[Jacques Santer]] and [[Jean-Claude Juncker]] (all former presidents of the [[European Commission]]), Luxembourgish politicians contributed substantially to the EU's formation and establishment. In 1999, Luxembourg joined the [[eurozone]]. Thereafter, the country was elected non-permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council]] (2013–14).

The [[steel industry]] exploiting the [[Red Lands]]' rich iron-ore grounds in the beginning of the 20th century drove Luxembourg's industrialization.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/steel-industry-luxembourg.html |title=The Steel Industry That Made Luxembourg's Fortune |website=Luxembourg.lu |date=9 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124090535/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/history/steel-industry-luxembourg.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After the decline of the steel industry in the 1970s, the country focused on establishing itself as [[Economy of Luxembourg|a global financial center]] and developed into the banking hub it is reputed to be. Since the beginning of the 21st century, its governments have focused on developing the country into a [[knowledge economy]], with the founding of the [[University of Luxembourg]] and a [[Luxembourg Space Agency|national space program]]. In 2020, Luxembourg became the first country in the world to provide [[free public transport]] at a national scale.

On 19 December 2023, Luxembourg's [[Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)|Chamber of Deputies]] adopted a law to modernize the current investment tax credit.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.taxand.com/our-thinking/news/luxembourg-parliament-adopts-law-modernising-investment-tax-credit-regime/ |title=Luxembourg Parliament adopts law modernising investment tax credit regime |author=Hugues Hénaff |website=Atoz.lu |date=20 December 2023 |access-date=4 May 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atoz.lu/media/Luxembourg-Parliament-adopts-law-modernising-investment-tax-credit-regime-2024#:~:text=On%2019%20December%202023%2C%20the,as%20from%20tax%20year%202024. |title=Loi du 22 décembre 2023 portant modification de la loi modifiée du 4 décembre 1967 concernant l’impôt sur le revenu. |website=legilux.public.lu |date=22 December 2025 |language=fr |access-date=4 May 2025 }}</ref> It took effect less than two weeks later on 1 January 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/leg/loi/2023/12/22/a836/jo |title=Luxembourg Parliament adopts law modernising investment tax credit regime as from 2024 |website=taxand.com |date=5 January 2024 |access-date=4 May 2025 }}</ref>