Editing Lithuanian language (section)

==History==
{{quote box
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| quote = Anyone wishing to hear how [[Indo-European]]s spoke should come and listen to a Lithuanian peasant.
| source = — [[Antoine Meillet]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Ever wanted to travel back in time? Talk to a Lithuanian! |url=https://termcoord.eu/2014/08/ever-wanted-travel-back-time-talk-lithuanian-3/ |website=[[Terminology Coordination Unit of the European Parliament]] |access-date=16 August 2021 |date=19 August 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013145427/https://termcoord.eu/2014/08/ever-wanted-travel-back-time-talk-lithuanian-3/ |archivedate=13 October 2014}}</ref>
}}
Among Indo-European languages, Lithuanian is conservative in its grammar and phonology, retaining archaic features otherwise found only in ancient languages such as [[Sanskrit]]<ref name="Smalstieg 19822">{{Cite journal |last=Smalstieg |first=William |date=1982 |title=The Origin of the Lithuanian Language |url=http://www.lituanus.org/1982_1/82_1_01.htm |journal=Lituanus |volume=28 |issue=1 |access-date=2016-08-07 |via=lituanus.org}}</ref> (particularly its early form, [[Vedic Sanskrit]]) or [[Ancient Greek]]. Thus, it is an important source for the reconstruction of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] despite its late attestation (with the earliest texts dating only to {{Circa|1500 [[AD]]}}, whereas [[Ancient Greek]] was first written down about three thousand years earlier in c.{{nbsp}}1450 BC).<ref name="Britannica2"/>

[[File:The prevalence of Baltic hydronyms.png|thumb|left|Map of the prevalence of hydronyms of Baltic origin<ref name="OriginVle"/>]]
According to [[hydronym]]s of [[Balts|Baltic]] origin, the [[Baltic languages]] were spoken in a large area east of the [[Baltic Sea]], and in c.{{nbsp}}1000 BC it had two linguistic units: western and eastern.<ref name="OriginVle">{{cite web |last1=Zinkevičius |first1=Zigmas |title=Lietuvių kalbos kilmė |trans-title=The Origin of the Lithuanian Language |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuviu-kalbos-kilme/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=21 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> According to [[Glottochronology|glottochronological]] research, the Eastern Baltic languages split from the Western Baltic ones between c.{{nbsp}}400 BC and c.{{nbsp}}600 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Girdenis |first1=Aleksas |last2=Mažiulis |first2=Vytautas |date=1994 |title=Baltų kalbų divergencinė chronologija |journal=Baltistica |language=lt |volume=27 |issue=2 |page=10 |doi=10.15388/baltistica.27.2.204 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Novotná |first1=Petra |last2=Blažek |first2=Václav |date=2007 |title=Glottochronology and Its Application on the Balto-Slavic Languages |journal=Baltistica |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=208–209 |doi=10.15388/baltistica.42.3.1178 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The Greek geographer [[Ptolemy]] had already written of two Baltic tribe/nations by name, the [[Galindians#Western Galindians|Galindai]] ({{Lang|grc|Γαλίνδαι}}) and [[Sudovians|Sudinoi]] ({{Lang|grc|Σουδινοί}}), in the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Patackas |first1=Algirdas |title=Apie galindus, baltų gentį, ir jų kelionę į vakarus, pasaulio pakraštį (nuotraukos) |url=https://www.lrytas.lt/kultura/istorija/2010/09/24/news/apie-galindus-baltu-genti-ir-ju-kelione-i-vakarus-pasaulio-pakrasti-nuotraukos--4681476 |website=[[lrytas.lt]] |access-date=22 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Baltų kalbos ir tautos |url=https://www.aidai.eu/index.php?view=article&catid=202%3A6-rugsjis&id=2746%3Ais&option=com_content&Itemid=233 |website=Aidai.eu |access-date=22 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> Lithuanian originated from the Eastern Baltic subgroup and remained nearly unchanged until c.{{nbsp}}1 AD, however in c.{{nbsp}}500 AD the language of the northern part of Eastern Balts was influenced by the [[Finnic languages]], which fueled the development of changes from the language of the Southern Balts (see: [[Latgalian language|Latgalian]], which developed into [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and extinct [[Curonian language|Curonian]], [[Semigallian language|Semigallian]], and [[Selonian language|Selonian]]).<ref name="OriginVle"/> The language of Southern Balts was less influenced by this process and retained many of its older features, which form Lithuanian.<ref name="OriginVle"/>

[[File:Lithuanian language in the 16th century.png|left|thumb|Area where Lithuanian was spoken in the 16th century]]
The differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian started after c.{{nbsp}}800 AD; for a long period, they could be considered dialects of a single language.<ref name="Blspace">{{cite web |title=History |url=https://balticlanguage.space/history/ |website=Balticlanguage.space |access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref> At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th or 15th century and perhaps as late as the 17th century.<ref name="Blspace"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Indo-European Languages|last1=Ramat|first1=Anna Giacalone|author-link=Anna Giacalone Ramat|last2=Ramat|first2=Paolo|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=9781134921867|pages=454–479|chapter=The Baltic Languages|oclc=908192063}}</ref> The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] occupied the western part of the [[Daugava River|Daugava]] basin, which resulted in [[colonization]] of the territory of modern [[Latvia]] (at the time it was called [[Terra Mariana]]) by Germans and had a significant influence on the language's independent development due to [[Germanisation]] (see also: [[Baltic Germans]] and [[Baltic German nobility]]).<ref name="Blspace"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Latvia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Latvia/History |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref>

There was fascination with the Lithuanian people and their language among the late 19th-century researchers, and the philologist [[Isaac Taylor (priest)|Isaac Taylor]] wrote the following in his ''The Origin of the Aryans'' (1892):
<blockquote>"Thus it would seem that the Lithuanians have the best claim to represent the primitive [[Aryan race]], as their language exhibits fewer of those phonetic changes, and of those grammatical losses which are consequent on the acquirement of a foreign speech."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Isaac |author-link=Isaac Taylor (priest) |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924029872847/page/n277/mode/2up |title=The Origin of the Aryans: An Account of the Prehistoric Ethnology and Civilisation of Europe |publisher=24 Warwick Lane, [[Paternoster Row]] |year=1892 |edition=2nd |series=The Contemporary Science |location=London |page=261}}</ref></blockquote>

Lithuanian was studied by several linguists such as [[Franz Bopp]], [[August Schleicher]], [[Adalbert Bezzenberger]], [[Louis Hjelmslev]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQ6CTNgAbPMC&q=danis+hjelmslev+studied+lithuanian&pg=PA124 |title=Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195187687 |editor-last=Chapman |editor-first=Siobhan |page=124 |editor-last2=Routledge |editor-first2=Christopher}}</ref> [[Ferdinand de Saussure]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joseph |first=John E. |date=2009 |title=Why Lithuanian Accentuation Mattered to Saussure |url=http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/~josephj/LHI_Joseph%5b1%5d.pdf |journal=Language & History |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=182–198 |doi=10.1179/175975309X452067 |s2cid=144780177 |access-date=1 April 2018 |via=lel.ed.ac.uk}}</ref> [[Winfred P. Lehmann]] and [[Vladimir Toporov]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sabaliauskas |first=Algirdas |date=2007 |title=Remembering Vladimir Toporov |url=http://www.lituanus.org/2007/07_2_01%20Sabaliauskas.html |journal=Lituanus |volume=53 |issue=2 |access-date=4 April 2018 |via=lituanus.org |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224180000/http://www.lituanus.org/2007/07_2_01%20Sabaliauskas.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Jan Safarewicz,<ref>{{cite web |title=Jan Safarewicz |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/jan-safarewicz/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=21 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> and others.

By studying place names of Lithuanian origin, linguist {{Ill|Jan Safarewicz|pl}} concluded that the eastern boundaries of Lithuanian used to be in the shape of zigzags through [[Grodno]], [[Shchuchyn]], [[Lida]], [[Valozhyn]], [[Svir, Belarus|Svir]], and [[Braslaw]].<ref name="OriginVle"/> Such eastern boundaries partly coincide with the spread of [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] faith, and should have existed at the time of the [[Christianization of Lithuania]] in 1387 and later.<ref name="OriginVle"/> Safarewicz's eastern boundaries were moved even further to the south and east by other scholars (e.g. {{ill|Mikalay Biryla|be|Мікалай Васілевіч Бірыла}}, {{Ill|Petras Gaučas|lt}}, {{ill|Jerzy Ochmański|pl}}, [[Aleksandras Vanagas]], [[Zigmas Zinkevičius]], and others).<ref name="OriginVle"/>

[[Proto-Balto-Slavic]] branched off directly from Proto-Indo-European, then sub-branched into [[Proto-Baltic]] and [[Proto-Slavic]]. Proto-Baltic branched off into Proto-West Baltic and Proto-East Baltic.<ref name="Smalstieg 1982">{{Cite journal |last=Smalstieg |first=William |date=1982 |title=The Origin of the Lithuanian Language |url=http://www.lituanus.org/1982_1/82_1_01.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Lituanus |volume=28 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111175048/http://www.lituanus.org/1982_1/82_1_01.htm |archive-date=11 November 2020 |access-date=2016-08-07 |via=lituanus.org}}</ref> The Baltic languages passed through a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage, from which the Baltic languages retain exclusive and non-exclusive lexical, morphological, phonological and accentual isoglosses in common with the [[Slavic languages]], which represent their closest living Indo-European relatives. Moreover, with Lithuanian being so archaic in phonology, Slavic words can often be deduced from Lithuanian by regular [[sound law]]s; for example, Lith. ''[[wikt:vilkas#Lithuanian|vilkas]]'' and [[Polish language|Polish]] [[wikt:wilk#Polish|wilk]] ← [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|PBSl.]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Balto-Slavic/wilkás#Proto-Balto-Slavic|*wilkás]] (cf. [[Proto-Slavic language|PSl.]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/vьlkъ#Proto-Slavic|*vьlkъ]]) ← [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/wĺ̥kʷos#Proto-Indo-European|*wĺ̥kʷos]], all meaning "[[wolf]]".

Because of the three archaeological cultures in Lithuania, some scholars divide the Lithuanian ethnos into three cultural groups – Samogitians (Western), Aukštaitians{{Efn|In academic literature, they are referred to as ''Aukštaitians'' (a neologism derived from ''Aukštaičiai'') or upland Lithuanians. The translation ''highland Lithuanians'' is not applicable.|name=a}} (Central) and Lithuanians (Eastern). Traditionally, the [[Samogitians|Samogitian]] tribe is included within the broader Lithuanian ethnos as suggested by historical accounts, dividing Lithuania into two parts – ''Austechia'' ([[Aukštaitija]]) and ''Samogitia'' ([[Samogitia|Žemaitija]])<ref>[[Tomas Baranauskas|Baranauskas, Tomas]] (2006). ''Aukštaitija XIII–XV amžiuje'' [''Aukštaitija in the 13th–15th centuries''] (in Lithuanian). Kaunas: Žiemgalos leidykla. p. 1.</ref><ref>Misiūnas, Romuald J., Bater, James H. ''Prehistory to the 18th Century. Baltic states''. [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopaedia Britannica]].</ref> – but their origins are a subject of ongoing debates. Linguist Jūratė Sofija Laučiūtė argues that prior to their [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]], ancient Samogitians were a different tribe from the [[Lithuanians (tribe)|Lithuanians]], which is evinced by certain linguistic features not explainable by [[phonetics]] alone, such as the ending ''-ou <*-ou'' of masculine [[noun]]s in [[Genitive case|genitive form]] (e.g. [[Samogitian language|Samogitian]] ''velkou'', Lithuanian ''vilkui'', meaning ([[Dative case|{{sc|'''dat'''}}]]) 'wolf'). Valdemaras Šimėnas suggests that both culturally and linguistically ancient Samogitians were closer to [[Curonians]], [[Semigallians]] and [[Selonians]] than Lithuanians.<ref>Kavaliauskas, Antanas (1 January 2018). "Žemaičių kilmės problematika" [The Problematic Nature of Samogitian Origin] (in Lithuanian). ''Kalvotoji Žemaitija''. Retrieved on 5 February 2025.</ref> In the late 12th century, Samogitians and Lithuanians formed a tribal union, which was the basis for the future Lithuanian state.<ref>[[Edvardas Gudavičius|Gudavičius, Edvardas]]. "[https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuviu-zemiu-konfederacija/ Lietuvos žemių konfederacija]" [The Confederation of Lithuanian Lands] (in Lithuanian). [[Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija|''Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia'']].</ref>

Initially, Lithuanian was a [[spoken language]] in the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and [[Duchy of Prussia]], while the beginning of Lithuanian writing is possibly associated with the introduction of [[Catholic Church in Lithuania|Christianity in Lithuania]] when [[Mindaugas]] was [[Baptism|baptized]] and crowned King of Lithuania in 1250–1251.<ref name="RasomojiKalbaVle">{{cite web |last1=Zinkevičius |first1=Zigmas |title=Lietuvių rašomoji kalba |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuviu-rasomoji-kalba/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref name="OriginVle"/> It is believed that [[prayer]]s were translated into the local dialect of Lithuanian by [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] monks during the baptism of Mindaugas, however none of the writings has survived.<ref name="RasomojiKalbaVle"/> The first recorded Lithuanian word, reported to have been said on 24 December 1207 from the chronicle of [[Henry of Latvia]], was ''Ba'', an [[interjection]] of a Lithuanian raider after he found no loot to pillage in a Livonian church.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Antanavičius |first1=Darius |last2=Baronas |first2=Darius |last3=Dubonis |first3=Artūras |last4=Petrauskas |first4=Rimvydas |title=Mindaugo knyga. Istorijos šaltiniai apie Lietuvos karalių |date=2005 |publisher=Lietuvos istorijos instituto leidykla |location=Vilnius |isbn=9986780683 |page=97}}</ref>
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| footer = Lithuanian was mentioned as one of the languages of the participants of the [[Council of Constance]] in 1414–1418: see ''{{Lang|la|Lingwa Lietowia}}'' (left) and {{lang|de|Littowelch}} (right) in a 15th century ''{{Lang|de|Chronik des Konstanzer Konzils}}'' compiled by [[Ulrich of Richenthal]].
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Although no writings in Lithuanian have survived from the 15th century or earlier,<ref name="RasomojiKalbaVle"/> Lithuanian ({{langx|la|Lingwa Lietowia}}) was mentioned as one of the European languages of the participants in the [[Council of Constance]] in 1414–1418.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tarp Europos kalbų U. Richentalis paminėjo ir Lingwa Lietowia – lietuvių kalbą |journal=Lietuvos bajoras |date=2015 |issue=21 |page=22 |url=https://www.lbks.lt/images/zurnalai/pdf/bajoru_zurnalas21.pdf |access-date=17 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Ulrich of Richenthal]] |title=Concilium zu Constencz (Chronik des Konstanzer Konzils) |page=232v |url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ir00196000/0463/image,info,thumbs |access-date=17 January 2023 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rutkauskienė |first1=Violeta |title=Istorinės Lietuvos valdovų vėliavos ir LDK delegacijos herbai Konstanco metraštininkų kronikose |journal=Voruta |date=2016 |issue=1 |page=5 |url=https://www.voruta.lt/wp-content/uploads/Voruta-2016-nr.-1.pdf |access-date=9 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> From the middle of the 15th century, the legend spread about the [[Roman people|Roman]] origin of the [[Lithuanian nobility]] (from the [[Palemonids|Palemon lineage]]), and the closeness of the Lithuanian language and Latin, thus this let some intellectuals in the mid-16th century to advocate for replacement of Ruthenian with Latin, as they considered Latin as the native language of Lithuanians.<ref name="Dubonis2016"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kiaupa |first1=Zigmantas |title=The history of Lithuania before 1795 |last2=Kiaupienė |first2=Jūratė |last3=Kuncevičius |first3=Albinas |year=2000 |isbn=9789986810131 |page=194 |publisher=Lithuanian Institute of History |location=Vilnius}}</ref>

Initially, [[Latin]] and [[Church Slavonic]] were the main [[written language|written]] ([[Chancery (medieval office)|chancellery]]) languages of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but in the late 17th century – 18th century Church Slavonic was replaced with Polish.<ref name="RasomojiKalbaVle"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Poliakovas |first1=Olegas |title=Slavų kanceliarinė kalba |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/slavu-kanceliarine-kalba/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> Nevertheless, Lithuanian was a [[spoken language]] of the [[List of heads of state of Lithuania#Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1263–1569)|medieval Lithuanian rulers]] from the [[Gediminids]] dynasty and its cadet branches: [[Family of Kęstutis|Kęstutaičiai]] and [[Jagiellonian dynasty|Jagiellonian dynasties]].<ref name="KalbaVR">{{cite web |title=Kurie Lietuvos valdovai mokėjo protėvių kalbą, kurie – ne? / Laida "Lietuva – mūsų lūpose" |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_I9qGa1J44 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/o_I9qGa1J44| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|website=YouTube |publisher=Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=lt}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Pancerovas">{{cite web |title=Ar perrašinėjamos istorijos pasakų įkvėpta Baltarusija gali kėsintis į Rytų Lietuvą? |url=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/ar-perrasinejamos-istorijos-pasaku-ikvepta-baltarusija-gali-kesintis-i-rytu-lietuva-582-456877 |last1=Pancerovas |first1=Dovydas |website=[[15min.lt]] |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref name="Statkuviene">{{cite web |last1=Statkuvienė |first1=Regina |title=Jogailaičiai. Kodėl ne Gediminaičiai? |url=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/jogailaiciai-kodel-ne-gediminaiciai-582-1056552 |website=15min.lt |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref name="Stone"/> It is known that [[Jogaila]], being [[Lithuanians|ethnic Lithuanian]] by the [[Patrilineality|male-line]], himself knew and spoke Lithuanian with [[Vytautas the Great]], his cousin from the Gediminids dynasty.<ref name="Pancerovas"/><ref name="Statkuviene"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Plikūnė |first1=Dalia |title=Kodėl Jogaila buvo geras, o Vytautas Didysis – genialus |url=https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/kodel-jogaila-buvo-geras-o-vytautas-didysis-genialus.d?id=76794153 |website=[[DELFI]] |access-date=17 July 2021 |language=lt}}</ref> During the [[Christianization of Lithuania#Christianization by Jogaila and Vytautas|Christianization of Samogitia]] none of the clergy, who arrived to [[Duchy of Samogitia|Samogitia]] with Jogaila, were able to communicate with the natives, therefore Jogaila himself taught the [[Samogitians]] about [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]; thus he was able to communicate in the [[Samogitian dialect]] of Lithuanian.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baronas |first1=Darius |title=Žemaičių krikštas: tyrimai ir refleksija |date=2013 |publisher=[[Lithuanian Catholic Academy of Science]] |location=[[Vilnius]] |isbn=978-9986-592-71-6 |pages=33–34 |url=https://www.lkma.lt/site/files/file/leidiniai/Zemaiciu_krikstas.pdf |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> Soon afterwards Vytautas the Great wrote in his 11 March 1420 letter to [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], that Lithuanian and Samogitian are the same language.<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Vytautas the Great]] |author2=Valkūnas, Leonas (translation from [[Latin]]) |title=Vytauto laiškai [ Letters of Vytautas the Great ] |publisher=[[Vilnius University]], Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore |page=6 |url=http://www.šaltiniai.info/files/literatura/LC00/Vytauto_lai%C5%A1kai.LC2100.pdf |access-date=4 March 2023 |language=lt |quote=Juk pirmiausia Jūs padarėte ir paskelbėte sprendimą dėl Žemaičių žemės, kuri yra mūsų paveldėjimas ir mūsų tėvonija iš teisėtos prosenolių bei senolių įpėdinystės. Ją ir dabar nuosavybėje turime, ji dabar yra ir visada buvo viena ir ta pati Lietuvos žemė, nes yra viena kalba bei tie patys gyventojai. (...) Taip pat Žemaitijos žmonės nuo senų laikų save vadino lietuviais ir niekada žemaičiais, ir dėl tokio tapatumo (sic) savo rašte mes nerašome apie Žemaitiją, nes viskas yra viena, vienas kraštas ir tie patys gyventojai.}}</ref>

[[File:1501. Roman Catholic churches within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where the priests must know the Lithuanian language.svg|thumb|left|175px|The Grand Duke of Lithuania, [[Alexander Jagiellon]], specified that the Roman Catholic priests in these 28 churches must know the Lithuanian language, according to his letter of 18 September 1501, which was addressed to the Bishop of Vilnius Albertas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fijał |first1=Jan |last2=Semkowicz |first2=Władysław |date=1948-01-01 |title=Kodeks dyplomatyczny katedry i diecezji Wilenskiej. Tomu 1. Zeszyt 3 (1501–1507, uzupełn. 1394–1500) (W Krakowie 1948) |url=https://www.academia.edu/45078413 |journal=Codex Diplomaticus Ecclesiae Cathedralis Necnon Dioceseos Vilnensis. Voluminis I. Fasciculus 3 (1501–1507, Addenda 1394–1500). |pages=616–617 |access-date=8 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baranauskas |first=Tomas |date=2009-01-01 |title=Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė ir lietuvių tauta |trans-title=The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Lithuanian nation |url=https://www.academia.edu/3715377 |journal=Lietuvių tauta |language=lt |volume=11: Tirpstančios lietuvių žemės |page=82 |access-date=8 September 2024}}</ref>]]
The use of Lithuanian continued at the Lithuanian [[royal court]] after the deaths of Vytautas the Great (1430) and Jogaila (1434).<ref name="Stone"/> For example, since the young Grand Duke [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the [[Lithuanian Council of Lords]], presided by [[Jonas Goštautas]], while Casimir IV Jagiellon was taught Lithuanian and [[Culture of Lithuania|customs of Lithuania]] by appointed court officials.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Eugenija |last1=Ulčinaitė |last2=Jovaišas |first2=Albinas |url=http://ualgiman.dtiltas.lt/vid..html#Hermanas_Vartbergietis_ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026081117/http://ualgiman.dtiltas.lt/vid..html#Hermanas_Vartbergietis_ |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 October 2007 |title=Lietuvių kalba ir literatūros istorija |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ulčinaitė |first1=Eugenija |last2=Jovaišas |first2=Albinas |title=Lietuvių literatūros istorija: XIII-XVIII amžius |date=2003 |publisher=Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas |location=Vilnius |isbn=995547551X |pages=13–66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stryjkowski |first1=Maciej |author-link1=Maciej Stryjkowski |title=Kronika Polska, Litewska, Zmódzka i wszystkiéj Rusi. |date=1582 |publisher=Warszawa Nak. G.L. Glüsksverga |page=207 |url=https://archive.org/details/kronikapolskalit02stryuoft/page/206/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=16 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="KalbaVR"/> During the Polish [[szlachta]]'s envoys visit to Casimir in 1446, they noticed that in Casimir's royal court the Lithuanian-speaking courtiers were mandatory, alongside the Polish courtiers.<ref name="Dubonis2016">{{cite journal |last1=Dubonis |first1=Artūras |title=The Prestige and decline of the official (state) language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (fifteenth-sixteenth century): problems in Belarusian historiography |journal=Lithuanian Historical Studies |date=2016 |volume=20 |pages=6–7, 15–16, 21 |url=https://etalpykla.lituanistika.lt/fedora/objects/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2016~1512655799738/datastreams/DS.002.1.01.ARTIC/content |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutrzeba |first1=Stanisław |last2=Semkowicz |first2=Władysław |title=Akta unji Polski z Litwą, 1385-1791 |date=1932 |publisher=Polska Akademia Umiejętności |location=[[Kraków]] |page=117 |url=https://pbc.biaman.pl/dlibra/publication/1419/edition/1545?language=en |access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> Casimir IV Jagiellon's son [[Saint Casimir]], who was subsequently announced as patron saint of Lithuania, was a [[polyglot]] and among other languages knew Lithuanian.<ref name="KazimierasVK">{{cite web |title=Šventojo Kazimiero gyvenimo istorija |url=https://www.katedra.lt/sv-kazimieras/istorija/ |website=[[Vilnius Cathedral]] |access-date=3 March 2023 |language=lt |quote=Jo gyvenimą tyrinėjo popiežiaus Leono X legatas vyskupas Z. Ferreri. 1521 m. jis išspausdino biografiją "Vita beati Casimiri, scripta Vilniae" – tai vienintelis XVI a. šaltinis, kalbantis apie asketišką Kazimiero gyvenimą. Autorius akcentuoja, kad Kazimieras mokėjęs lietuvių, lenkų, vokiečių ir lotynų kalbas, turėjęs nemažai dorybių: buvo teisingas, susivaldantis, tvirtos dvasios, išmintingas.}}</ref> Grand Duke [[Alexander Jagiellon]] also could understand and speak Lithuanian as multiple Lithuanian priests served in his royal chapel and he also maintained a Lithuanian court.<ref name="Dubonis2016"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pietkiwicz |first1=K. |title=Dwór litewski wielkiego księcia Aleksandra Jagiellończyka (1492–1506) |date=1997 |location=Vilnius}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kiaupa |first1=Zigmantas |last2=Mickevičius |first2=Arturas |last3=Sarcevičienė |first3=Jolita |title=Lietuvos valstybė: XII-XVIII a. |date=1997 |publisher=Lietuvos istorijos institutas, Lietuvos mokslų akademija |isbn=978-9986-780-08-3 |pages=88–89 |language=lt}}</ref> In 1501, [[Erazm Ciołek (bishop of Płock)|Erazm Ciołek]], a priest of the Vilnius Cathedral, explained to the [[Pope]] that the Lithuanians preserve their language and ensure respect to it ({{langx|la|Linguam propriam observant|label=none}}), but they also use the [[Ruthenian language]] for simplicity reasons because it is spoken by almost half of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.<ref name="Dubonis2016"/> A note written by [[Sigismund von Herberstein]] in the first half of the 16th century states that, in an ocean of [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] in this part of Europe, there were two non-Ruthenian regions: Lithuania and Samogitia where its inhabitants spoke their own language, but many Ruthenians were also living among them.<ref name="Dubonis2002">{{Cite journal |last=Dubonis |first=Artūras |date=2002 |title=Lietuvių kalba: poreikis ir vartojimo mastai : XV a. antra pusė - XVI a. pirma pusė |url=https://etalpykla.lituanistika.lt/fedora/objects/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2002~1367186030476/datastreams/DS.002.0.01.ARTIC/content |journal=Naujasis židinys–Aidai |volume=9-10 |pages=473–478}}</ref>

[[File:Oldest surviving writing in Lithuanian language.jpg|thumb|150px|The oldest surviving [[manuscript]] in Lithuanian ({{c.|1503}}), rewritten from a 15th century original text.]]
The earliest surviving written Lithuanian text is a translation dating from about 1503–1525 of the [[Lord's Prayer]], the [[Hail Mary]], and the [[Nicene Creed]] written in the Southern Aukštaitian dialect.<ref name="RasomojiKalbaVle"/> Since 1530–1560 [[Prussian Lithuanians]] were taught in native Lithuanian language in parishes and peasants schools of [[Lithuania Minor]], and in 200 years the authorities of the [[Duchy of Prussia]] have not taken obstructive measures against such education.<ref name="JuskaMle">{{cite web |last1=Juška |first1=Albertas |title=Lietuvių kalba Mažosios Lietuvos mokyklose |url=https://www.mle.lt/straipsniai/lietuviu-kalba-mazosios-lietuvos-mokyklose |website=Mažosios Lietuvos enciklopedija |access-date=21 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref> On 8 January 1547 the first Lithuanian book was printed – the [[Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas|''Catechism'' of Martynas Mažvydas]].<ref name="RasomojiKalbaVle"/>

At the royal courts in Vilnius of [[Sigismund II Augustus]], the last Grand Duke of Lithuania prior to the [[Union of Lublin]], both Polish and Lithuanian were spoken equally widely.<ref name="Stone">{{cite book |last1=Stone |first1=Daniel |title=The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 |date=2001 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98093-5 |pages=4, 52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&q=Lithuanian&pg=PA52 |access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref> In 1552 Sigismund II Augustus ordered that orders of the [[Magistrate]] of Vilnius be announced in Lithuanian, Polish, and Ruthenian.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Menelis |first1=E. |last2=Samavičius |first2=R. |title=Vilniaus miesto istorijos chronologija |url=http://www.vilnijosvartai.lt/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Vilniaus-miesto-istorijos-chronologija.pdf |website=Vilnijosvartai.lt |access-date=12 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> The same requirement was valid for the Magistrate of [[Kaunas]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kauno rotušė |url=http://www.autc.lt/lt/architekturos-objektai/971 |website=Autc.lt |access-date=12 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Butėnas |first1=Domas |title=Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės valstybinių ir visuomeninių institucijų istorijos bruožai XIII–XVIII a. |date=1997 |publisher=Lietuvos istorijos instituto leidykla |location=Vilnius |pages=145–146}}</ref>

In the 16th century, following the decline of Ruthenian usage in favor of Polish in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Lithuanian language strengthened its positions in Lithuania due to reforms in religious matters and judicial reforms which allowed lower levels of the [[Lithuanian nobility]] to participate in the social-political life of the state.<ref name="Dubonis2016"/> In 1599, [[Mikalojus Daukša]] published his [[Postil of Mikalojus Daukša|Postil]] and in its [[preface]]s he expressed that the Lithuanian language situation had improved and thanked bishop [[Merkelis Giedraitis]] for his works.<ref name="Dubonis2016"/>

The early 18th century was devastating for the Lithuanian speakers as the [[Great Northern War plague outbreak]] in 1700–1721 killed 49% of residents in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1/3 of residents in [[Lithuania proper]] and up to 1/2 of residents in [[Samogitia]]) and 53% of residents in [[Lithuania Minor]] (more than 90% of the deceased were [[Prussian Lithuanians]]).<ref name="MarasVle"/> On the other hand, Lithuanian language seminars were established in the [[University of Königsberg]] (1718) and in the [[Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg|Prussian University of Halle]] (1727).<ref name="SvietimasML">{{cite web |title=Švietimas Mažojoje Lietuvoje |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/svietimas-mazojoje-lietuvoje/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=19 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref>

Until 1741 in the Lithuanian Province ({{lang|de|Provinz Litauen}}) of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], which encompassed the counties of [[Klaipėda]], [[Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Tilsit]], [[Neman, Russia|Ragnit]], [[Chernyakhovsk|Insterburg]], there were 275 Lithuanian primary schools (in multinational areas separate classes were formed for Lithuanian and German speakers), in 1800 – 411 Lithuanian schools.<ref name="SvietimasML"/>

In 1776–1790 about 1,000 copies of the first Catholic [[Primer (textbook)|primer]] in Lithuanian – ''[[Mokslas skaitymo rašto lietuviško]]'' – were issued annually, and it continued to be published until 1864. Over 15,000 copies appeared in total.<ref name="Ldm">{{cite web |title=Lietuvių kalbos elementorius "Mokslas skaitymo rašto lenkiško" |url=http://old.ldm.lt/klasicizmo_epocha/atrask/3_0_p2.asp |website=[[Lithuanian National Museum of Art]] |language=lt |access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="Baranauskas">{{cite web |last1=Baranauskas |first1=Tomas |authorlink1=Tomas Baranauskas |title=Ar Seimo nariams reikia išmanyti istoriją? |url=https://www.delfi.lt/archive/tbaranauskas-ar-seimo-nariams-reikia-ismanyti-istorija.d?id=18754936 |website=[[DELFI]] |language=lt |access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Moksłas skaytima raszta lietuwiszka dieł mażu wayku |date=1828 |publisher=Drukarnioy Kunigu Misionoriu |location=Vilnius |url=https://kolekcijos.biblioteka.vu.lt/en/objects/VUB01_000283162#00003 |access-date=12 February 2023 |language=Lithuanian}}</ref> The [[Constitution of 3 May 1791]] was translated into the Lithuanian language shortly after its adoption by the [[Great Sejm]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/geguzes-treciosios-konstitucija/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=24 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref> During the [[Kościuszko Uprising]] (1794) directive documents were distributed and appeals were published in various languages, including Lithuanian, also the Lithuanian language was used for [[sermon]]s dedicated to the uprising (e.g. preached at [[Church of St. Johns, Vilnius]] and other churches, as well as in military units).<ref>{{cite web |title=1794 m. Tado Kosciuškos sukilimo parodoje – didingo Abiejų Tautų Respublikos įvykio palikimas |url=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/parodoje-tado-kosciuskos-sukilimo-1794-m-dokumentai-didingo-abieju-tautu-respublikos-pasipriesinimo-palikimas-582-440457 |website=15min.lt |access-date=24 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bibliotekos unikumai ir raritetai |url=http://www.mab.lt/Biblioteka100/5.html |website=[[Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania]] |access-date=24 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vilniaus istorijos puslapiai: miesto gynyba 1794 m. sukilimo metu |url=https://www.15min.lt/kultura/naujiena/literatura/vilniaus-istorijos-puslapiai-miesto-gynyba-1794-m-sukilimo-metu-286-2356310 |website=15min.lt |access-date=24 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kuolys |first1=Darius |title=Mykolas Pranciškus Karpavičius |url=http://www.xn--altiniai-4wb.info/index/details/968 |website=Šaltiniai.info |publisher=Vilnius University, Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore |access-date=24 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Šmigelskytė-Stukienė |first1=Ramunė |last2=Brusokas |first2=Eduardas |title=Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė. Visuomenė. Kasdienybės istorija |journal=XVIII amžiaus studijos |date=2018 |issue=4 |page=225 |url=https://www.istorija.lt/data/public/uploads/2021/06/2018-xviii-a.-studijos-t.-4-9-eduardas-brusokas-1794-m.-sukileliu-viesieji-p.-218-228.pdf |publisher=Lithuanian Institute of History |access-date=24 January 2025 |language=lt}}</ref>

[[File:Vilnia, Lidzkaja-Franciškanskaja. Вільня, Лідзкая-Францішканская (J. Bułhak, 1912).jpg|thumb|Lithuanian school in Vilnius in 1902]]
In 1864, following the [[January Uprising]], [[Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov-Vilensky|Mikhail Muravyov]], the Russian [[Governor General of Lithuania]], banned the language in education and publishing [[Lithuanian press ban|and barred use of the Latin alphabet]] altogether, although books continued to be printed in Lithuanian across the border in [[East Prussia]] and in the [[United States]].<ref name="SpaudosDraudimasVle">{{cite web |last1=Merkys |first1=Vytautas |title=Lietuvių spaudos draudimas |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuviu-spaudos-draudimas/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref name="Lituanus1863-1893">{{cite journal |last1=Klimas |first1=Antanas |title=Lithuania 1863–1893: tsarist Russification and the beginnings of the modern Lithuanian National Movement |journal=Lituanus |date=1996 |volume=42 |issue=3 |url=https://www.lituanus.org/1996/96_3_03.htm |access-date=9 February 2023}}</ref> Brought into the country by [[Lithuanian book smugglers|book smugglers]] ({{langx|lt|knygnešiai|links=no}}) despite the threat of long prison sentences, they helped fuel [[Lithuanian National Revival|growing nationalist sentiment]] that finally led to the lifting of the ban in 1904.<ref name="SpaudosDraudimasVle"/><ref name="Lituanus1863-1893"/> According to the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897 (at the height of the Lithuanian press ban), 53.5% of Lithuanians (10 years and older) were literate, while the average of the [[Russian Empire]] was only 24–27.7% (in the European part of [[Russia]] the average was 30%, in [[Poland]] – 40.7%).<ref name="Baranauskas" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Education - Revolutionary, Patterns, Education |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Revolutionary-patterns-of-education |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=1 October 2023}}</ref> In the Russian Empire Lithuanian children were mostly educated by their parents or in secret schools by "daractors" in native Lithuanian language, while only 6.9% attended Russian state schools due to resistance to [[Russification]].<ref name="RastingumasVle">{{cite web |title=Raštingumas |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/rastingumas/ |website=Vle.lt |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vaivada |first1=Rimantas |title=Tautos tradicijos daraktorių veikloje, formuojant vertybių sistemą |journal=Pedagogika |date=2007 |issue=88 |pages=13–18 |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=22344 |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt |issn=1392-0340}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Daraktorius |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/daraktorius/ |website=Vle.lt |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> Russian governorates with significant Lithuanian populations had one of the highest population [[literacy]] rates: [[Vilna Governorate]] (in 1897 ~23.6–50% Lithuanian of whom 37% were literate), [[Kovno Governorate]] (in 1897 66% Lithuanian of whom 55.3% were literate), [[Suwałki Governorate]] (in 1897 in counties of the governorate where Lithuanian population was dominant 76,6% of males and 50,2% of females were literate).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mulevičius |first1=Leonas |title=Vilniaus gubernija |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/vilniaus-gubernija/ |website=Vle.lt |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kauno gubernija |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/kauno-gubernija/ |website=Vle.lt |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Merkys |first1=Vytautas |title=Suvalkų gubernija |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/suvalku-gubernija/ |website=Vle.lt |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Vaitekūnas |first1=Stasys |title=Lietuvos gyventojai Rusijos imperijos valdymo metais (1795–1914) |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuvos-gyventojai-rusijos-imperijos-valdymo-metais-1795-1914/ |website=Vle.lt |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=lt}}</ref>

In 1872, the German Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] started Germanisation policies ({{lang|de|Allgemeine Bestimmungen}}) after finishing the [[unification of Germany]] and the Lithuanian language education in primary schools of Lithuania Minor was started to be replaced with German, however due to parents protests the Lithuanian language education remained alongside German until the late 19th century.<ref name="SvietimasML"/><ref name="JuskaMle"/>
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 
| header_align = left/right/center
| footer_align = left/right/center
| image1 = Map with an area (marked in greenish-yellow) where Lithuanian language was dominant in 1827 (from Atlas statystyczny Polski i krajow okolicznych by Stanisław Plater).jpg
| width1 = 200
| caption1 = Area (marked in greenish-yellow) where Lithuanian language was dominant in 1827, depicted in a map by Lithuania-born historian, geographer [[Stanisław Plater]] (1827)
| image2 = Mapa języka litewskiego.tif
| width2 = 215
| caption2 = Area where Lithuanian language was dominantly spoken, including its islands and mixed territories in the late 19th century by Polish linguist [[Jan Michał Rozwadowski]] (1930)
| image3 = Litauen BV042518396.jpg
| width3 = 190
| caption3 = Ethnolinguistic area of Lithuanians and the Lithuanian language in 1917 by [[Prussian Lithuanian]] professor [[Vilius Gaigalaitis]] (Wilhelm Gaigalat), the dashed areas represent linguistically mixed border areas where Lithuanians formed a large minority
}}
[[Jonas Jablonskis]] (1860–1930) made significant contributions to the formation of standard Lithuanian.<ref name="JablonskisVle">{{cite web |last1=Sabaliauskas |first1=Algirdas |title=Jonas Jablonskis |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/jonas-jablonskis/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> The conventions of written Lithuanian had been evolving during the 19th century, but Jablonskis, in the introduction to his ''Lietuviškos kalbos gramatika'', was the first to formulate and expound the essential principles that were so indispensable to its later development.<ref name="JablonskisVle"/><ref name="BendrineVle"/> His proposal for Standard Lithuanian was based on his native [[Suvalkija|Western Aukštaitian]] dialect with some features of the eastern [[Prussian Lithuanians]]' dialect spoken in [[Lithuania Minor]].<ref name="JablonskisVle"/><ref name="BendrineVle"/> These dialects{{clarify|date=November 2014}}<!--Which dialects? Both the western and the eastern?--> had preserved archaic phonetics mostly intact due to the influence of the neighbouring [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]], while other dialects had experienced different [[Vowel shift|phonetic shift]]s.

[[File:Title page of Vyriausybės Žinios which includes articles of the 1922 Constitution of Lithuania (6 August 1922 edition).jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''Vyriausybės Žinios'' with articles of the 1922 Constitution of Lithuania. The sixth article established Lithuanian as the sole official language of Lithuania.]]
Lithuanian became the official language of the country following the [[Act of Independence of Lithuania|restoration of Lithuania's statehood]] in 1918. The 1922 [[Constitution of Lithuania]] (the first permanent Lithuanian [[constitution]]) recognized it as the sole [[official language]] of the state and mandated its use throughout the state.<ref name="ValstybineKalbaVle">{{cite web |last1=Ambrazas |first1=Vytautas |title=Lietuvos valstybinė kalba |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuvos-valstybine-kalba/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Večerskytė |first1=Juta |title=1922 Lietuvos Valstybės Konstitucija |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/n1922-lietuvos-valstybes-konstitucija/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=9 February 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> The improvement of education system during the [[interwar period]] resulted in 92% of literacy rate of the population in Lithuania in 1939 (those still illiterate were mostly elderly).<ref name="RastingumasVle"/>

Following the Żeligowski's Mutiny in 1920, Vilnius Region was detached from Lithuania and was eventually annexed by Poland in 1922. This resulted in repressions of Lithuanians and mass-closure of Lithuanian language schools in the Vilnius Region, especially when Vilnius Voivode [[Ludwik Bociański]] issued a secret memorandum of 11 February 1936 which stated the measures for suppressing the Lithuanians in the region.<ref name="Ereminas">{{cite journal |last1=Ereminas |first1=Gintautas |title=Lenkijos valdžios politika lietuvių tautinės mažumos atžvilgiu (1935–1939 m.) |journal=Gimtasai kraštas |date=2015 |volume=9 |pages=5–15 |url=https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/60381 |language=lt}}</ref><ref name="Tyla">{{cite web |last1=Tyla |first1=Antanas |date=6 October 2011 |title=Suvalkų sutartis ir jos išniekinimas |url=https://alkas.lt/2011/10/06/a-tyla-suvalku-sutartis-ir-jos-isniekinimas/ |website=Alkas.lt |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Ludwik |last1=Bociański |url=http://pbc.biaman.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=6846&from=publication |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509015230/http://pbc.biaman.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=6846&from=publication |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 May 2016 |title=Ściśle tajny memorjał Wojewody Wileńskiego Bociańskiego z dnia 11 lutego 1936 r. O posunięciach władz administracji ogólnej w stosunku do mniejszości litewskiej w Polsce oraz o zamierzeniach w tym wględzie na przyszłość : dwa załączniki z d. 11 i 21 marca 1938 r.)|language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smolarczyk |first1=Andrzej |title=Administracja państwowa wobec szkolnictwa mniejszości narodowych na terenach województw północno-wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej w latach 1935–1939 |pages=98–120 |url=https://www.snpl.lt/Rocznik/17/R.17.098-120.pdf |publisher=Politechnika Białostocka |language=pl}}</ref> Some Lithuanian historians, like {{Ill|Antanas Tyla|lt}} and Ereminas Gintautas, consider these Polish policies as amounting to an "[[ethnocide]] of Lithuanians".<ref name="Ereminas"/><ref name="Tyla"/>

Between 1862 and 1944, the Lithuanian schools were completely banned in Lithuania Minor and the language was almost completely eliminated there.<ref name="BendrineVle"/> The Baltic-origin place names retained their basis for centuries in [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]] but were Germanized (e.g. {{lang|lt|Tilžė}} – {{lang|de|Tilsit}}, {{lang|lt|Labguva}} – {{lang|de|Labiau}}, {{lang|lt|Vėluva}} – {{lang|de|Wehliau}}, etc.); however, after the annexation of the [[Königsberg (region)|Königsberg region]] into the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], they were changed completely, regardless of previous tradition (e.g. {{lang|de|Tilsit}} – {{lang|ru|Sovetsk}}, {{lang|de|Labiau}} – {{lang|ru|Polesk}}, {{lang|de|Wehliau}} – {{lang|ru|Znamensk}}, etc.).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kuzmickas |first1=Bronislovas |title=Kaimynas Vakaruose – iš Rytų. Prūsijos nebeliko |url=https://www.lrt.lt/naujienos/lietuvoje/2/169721/kaimynas-vakaruose-is-rytu-prusijos-nebeliko |website=Lithuanian National Radio and Television |access-date=9 February 2023 |language=lt |date=15 April 2017}}</ref>

The [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940]], [[German occupation of Lithuania during World War II|German occupation in 1941]], and eventually [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|Soviet re-occupation in 1944]], reduced the independent Republic of Lithuania to the [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic]] within the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="BendrineVle"/> [[Government of the Soviet Union|Soviet authorities]] introduced Lithuanian–[[Russian language|Russian]] bilingualism,<ref name="BendrineVle"/> and Russian, as the ''de facto'' official language of the USSR, took precedence and the use of Lithuanian was reduced in a process of Russification.<ref>{{harvnb|Dini|2000|page=362}} "Priešingai nei skelbė leninietiškos deklaracijos apie tautas ("Jokių privilegijų jokiai tautai ir jokiai kalbai"), reali TSRS politika – kartu ir kalbų politika – buvo ne kas kita kaip rusinimas<sup>77</sup>. Ir 1940–1941 metais, iš karto po priverstinio Pabaltijo valstybių įjungimo į TSRS, ir vėliau vyraujanti kalbos politikos linija Lietuvos TSRS ir Latvijos TSRS buvo tautinių kalbų raidos derinimas su socialistinių nacijų raida<sup>78</sup>. Tokia padėtis tęsėsi penkiasdešimt metų<sup>79</sup>."</ref><ref name="BendrineVle"/> Many Russian-speaking workers and teachers migrated to the Lithuanian SSR (fueled by the [[industrialization in the Soviet Union]]).<ref name="RusinimasVle">{{cite web |title=Lietuvos sovietinimas, rusinimas ir kolonizavimas |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuvos-sovietinimas-rusinimas-ir-kolonizavimas/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref> Russian consequently came into use in state institutions: the Central Committee of the [[Communist Party of Lithuania]] (there were 80% Russians among the 22,000 [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] members in the Lithuanian SSR in 1948), radio and television (61–74% of broadcasts were in Russian in 1970).<ref name="RusinimasVle"/> Lithuanians passively resisted Russification and continued to use their own language.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Staliūnas |first1=Darius |title=Rusinimas |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/rusinimas/ |website=Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref>

On 18 November 1988, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR]] restored Lithuanian as the official language of Lithuania, under from the popular pro-independence movement [[Sąjūdis]].<ref name="ValstybineKalbaVle"/>

On 11 March 1990, the [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania]] was passed. Lithuanian was recognized as sole official language of Lithuania in the Provisional Basic Law (Lithuanian: ''Laikinasis Pagrindinis Įstatymas'') and the Constitution of 1992, written during the [[1992 Lithuanian constitutional referendum|Lithuanian constitutional referendum]].<ref name="ValstybineKalbaVle"/><ref>{{cite web |title=LR Konstitucija – 14 straipsnis |url=https://www.lrk.lt/lietuvos-respublikos-konstitucija/1-skirsnis-lietuvos-valstybe/22-14-straipsnis |website=Lrk.lt |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=lt}}</ref>