Editing Labour law (section)

==History==
{{main|History of labour law|Collegium (ancient Rome)|Guild|Trade union}}

Following the unification of the [[List of cities of the ancient Near East|city-state]]s in [[Assyria]] and [[Sumer]] by [[Sargon of Akkad]] into a [[Akkadian Empire|single empire]] ruled from his [[Akkad (city)|home city]] circa 2334 BC, [[Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement|common Mesopotamian standards]] for [[length]], [[area]], [[volume]], [[weight]], and [[time]] used by [[artisan]] [[guild]]s in each city was promulgated by [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]] (c. 2254–2218 BC), Sargon's grandson, including for [[shekel]]s.<ref name="Powell 1995, p.1955">{{Cite book|last=Powell|first=Marvin A.|contribution=Metrology and Mathematics in Ancient Mesopotamia|year=1995|title=Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|editor-last=Sasson|editor-first=Jack M.|volume=III|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1955 1955]|place=New York, NY|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=0-684-19279-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1955}}</ref> [[Code of Hammurabi#Laws|Code of Hammurabi Law 234]] (c. 1755–1750 BC) stipulated a 2-shekel [[prevailing wage]] for each 60-[[Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement#Capacity or volume|gur]] (300-[[bushel]]) [[Merchant vessel|vessel]] constructed in an [[employment contract]] between a [[Shipbuilding|shipbuilder]] and a [[ship-owner]].<ref name="Sommer 1903 p. 85">{{cite journal|translator-last=Sommer|translator-first=Otto|author=Hammurabi|author-link=Hammurabi|title=Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon|year=1903|journal=Records of the Past|place=[[Washington, D.C.|Washington, DC]]|publisher=[[Records of the Past Exploration Society]]|volume=2|issue=3|page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/page/n25/mode/2up 85]|access-date=June 20, 2021|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/mode/2up|quote=234. If a shipbuilder builds ... as a present [compensation].}}</ref><ref name="Harper 1904 p. 85">{{cite web|translator-last=Harper|translator-first=Robert Francis|author=Hammurabi|author-link=Hammurabi|year=1904|title=Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon|place=[[Chicago]]|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|edition=2nd|page=[https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/hammurabi-the-code-of-hammurabi#lf0762_label_457 83]|website=[[Liberty Fund]]|url=https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1276/0762_Bk.pdf|access-date=June 20, 2021|quote=§234. If a boatman build ... silver as his wage.|archive-date=June 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613091052/https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1276/0762_Bk.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="King 1910">{{cite web|translator-last=King|translator-first=Leonard William|author=Hammurabi|author-link=Hammurabi|year=1910|title=Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon|place=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven, CT]]|publisher=[[Yale Law School]]|website=[[Avalon Project]]|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp|access-date=June 20, 2021|archive-date=May 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510072841/https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>

Law 275 stipulated a [[ferry]] [[Price|rate]] of 3-[[gerah]] per day on a [[charterparty]] between a [[Chartering (shipping)|ship charterer]] and a [[Sea captain|shipmaster]]. Law 276 stipulated a 2{{frac|1|2}}-gerah per day [[freight rate]] on a [[Affreightment|contract of affreightment]] between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a {{frac|1|6}}-shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel.<ref name="Sommer 1903 p. 88">{{cite journal|translator-last=Sommer|translator-first=Otto|author=Hammurabi|author-link=Hammurabi|title=Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon|year=1903|journal=Records of the Past|place=[[Washington, D.C.|Washington, DC]]|publisher=[[Records of the Past Exploration Society]]|volume=2|issue=3|page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/page/n29/mode/2up 88]|access-date=June 20, 2021|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924060109703/mode/2up|quote=275. If anyone hires a ... day as rent therefor.}}</ref><ref name="Harper 1904 p. 95">{{cite web|translator-last=Harper|translator-first=Robert Francis|author=Hammurabi|author-link=Hammurabi|year=1904|title=Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon|place=[[Chicago]]|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|edition=2nd|page=[https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/hammurabi-the-code-of-hammurabi#lf0762_label_497 95]|website=[[Liberty Fund]]|url=https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1276/0762_Bk.pdf|access-date=June 20, 2021|quote=§275. If a man hire ... its hire per day.|archive-date=June 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613091052/https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1276/0762_Bk.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="King 1910" />

In 1816, an archeological excavation in [[Minya, Egypt]] (under an [[Egypt Eyalet|Eyalet]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]) produced a [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]]-era [[Clay tablet|tablet]] from the ruins of the [[Antinous#Deification and the cult of Antinous|Temple of Antinous]] in [[Antinoöpolis]], [[Roman Egypt|Aegyptus]] that [[Articles of association|prescribed the rules]] and [[Benefit society|membership dues]] of a [[burial society]] ''[[Collegium (ancient Rome)|collegium]]'' established in [[Lanuvium]], [[Roman Italy|Italia]] in approximately 133 AD during the reign of [[Hadrian]] (117–138) of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|year=1915|title=The Documentary History of Insurance, 1000 B.C.–1875 A.D.|publisher=[[Prudential Financial|Prudential Press]]|place=[[Newark, New Jersey|Newark, NJ]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924030231736/page/n7/mode/2up 5–6]|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030231736/mode/2up|access-date=June 15, 2021}}</ref>

A ''collegium'' was any association in [[ancient Rome]] that [[Corporation|acted]] as a [[Legal person|legal entity]]. Following the passage of the ''[[Lex Julia]]'' during the reign of [[Julius Caesar]] as [[Roman consul|Consul]] and [[Roman dictator|Dictator]] of the [[Roman Republic]] (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]] as ''[[Princeps senatus]]'' and [[Imperator]] of the [[Imperial Roman army|Roman Army]] (27 BC–14 AD), ''collegia'' required the approval of the [[Roman Senate]] or the [[Roman emperor|Emperor]] in order to be [[Charter|authorized as legal bodies]].<ref name="de Ligt 2001">{{Cite journal|last=de Ligt|first=L.|date=2001|title=D. 47,22, 1, pr.-1 and the Formation of Semi-Public "Collegia"|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41539517|journal=Latomus|volume=60|issue=2|pages=346–349|jstor=41539517|issn=0023-8856|access-date=2021-06-23|archive-date=2020-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112195606/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41539517|url-status=live}}</ref> Ruins at [[Lambaesis]] date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and [[Roman navy|Roman Navy]] [[Sailor|mariner]]s to the reign of [[Septimius Severus]] (193–211) in 198 AD.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ginsburg|first=Michael|year=1940|title=Roman military clubs and their social functions|journal=[[Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association]]|volume=71|pages=149–156|doi=10.2307/283119|jstor=283119}}</ref>

In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of the [[Dredging|artificial]] [[harbour]] [[Portus]] in [[Rome]] revealed inscriptions in a [[shipyard]] constructed during the reign of [[Trajan]] (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild.<ref>{{cite news|last=Welsh|first=Jennifer|date=September 23, 2011|title=Huge Ancient Roman Shipyard Unearthed in Italy|website=[[Live Science]]|publisher=[[Future plc|Future]]|url=http://www.livescience.com/16201-rome-ancient-shipyard.html|access-date=June 23, 2021|archive-date=February 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213051448/https://www.livescience.com/16201-rome-ancient-shipyard.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Rome's [[Ostia Antica|La Ostia port]] was home to a [[guildhall]] for a ''corpus naviculariorum'', a ''collegium'' of [[Merchant navy|merchant mariners]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Epstein|first=Steven A.|year=1995|title=Wage Labor and Guilds in Medieval Europe|place=[[Chapel Hill, North Carolina|Chapel Hill, NC]]|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|pages=10–49|isbn=978-0807844984}}</ref> ''Collegium'' also included [[Fraternity|fraternities]] of [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman priests]] overseeing [[Religion in ancient Rome#Sacrifice|ritual sacrifice]]s, practicing [[augury]], keeping [[Religious text|scriptures]], arranging [[Roman festivals|festivals]], and maintaining specific [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|religious cults]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lintott|first=Andrew|title=The Constitution of the Roman Republic|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1999|location=Oxford|pages=183–186|isbn=978-0198150688}}</ref>

Labour law arose in parallel with the [[Industrial Revolution]] as the relationship between worker and employer changed from small-scale production studios to large-scale factories. Workers sought better conditions and the right to join a [[labour union]], while employers sought a more predictable, flexible and less costly workforce. The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the product of and a component of struggles between various social forces.

As England was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to face the often appalling consequences of the industrial revolution in a less regulated economic framework. Over the course of the late 18th and early to the mid-19th century the foundation for modern labour law was slowly laid, However, in the early days, there were some unequal aspects, such as the target being limited to women and children and not adult men, as some of the more egregious aspects, of working conditions were steadily ameliorated through legislation. This was largely achieved through the concerted pressure from [[social reform]]ers, notably [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury]], and others.

===Child labour===
A serious outbreak of fever in 1784 in [[cotton mills]] near [[Manchester]] drew widespread public opinion against the use of children in dangerous conditions. A local inquiry presided over by Dr [[Thomas Percival]], was instituted by the [[Justice of the peace|justices of the peace]] for [[Lancashire]], and the resulting report recommended the limitation of children's working hours.<ref>From an " Essay on Trade " (1770), quoted in ''History of Factory Legislation,'' by [[Elizabeth Leigh Hutchins|B. Leigh Hutchins]] and [[Amy Harrison (author)|Amy Harrison]] (1903), pp. 5, 6.</ref> In 1802, the first major piece of labour legislation was passed − the [[Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802|Health and Morals of Apprentices Act]]. This was the first, albeit modest, step towards the protection of labour. The act limited working hours to twelve a day and abolished night work. It required the provision of a basic level of education for all apprentices, as well as adequate sleeping accommodation and clothing.

The rapid industrialisation of manufacturing at the turn of the 19th century led to a rapid increase in child employment, and public opinion was steadily made aware of the terrible conditions these children were forced to endure. The [[Cotton Mills and Factories Act 1819]] was the outcome of the efforts of the industrialist [[Robert Owen]] and prohibited [[child labour]] under nine years of age and limited the working hours to twelve. A great milestone in labour law was reached with the [[Factories Act 1833]], which limited the employment of children under eighteen years of age, prohibited all night work, and, crucially, provided for inspectors to enforce the law. Pivotal in the campaigning for and the securing of this legislation were [[Michael Thomas Sadler|Michael Sadler]] and the [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury|Earl of Shaftesbury]]. This act was an important step forward, in that it mandated skilled inspection of workplaces and rigorous enforcement of the law by an independent governmental body.

A lengthy campaign to limit the working day to ten hours was led by Shaftesbury and included support from the [[Anglican Church]].<ref>{{citation |title=The Ten Hours' Bill |newspaper=The Times |url=http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/126/803/158807039w16/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS117603378&dyn=3!xrn_5_0_CS117603378&hst_1?sw_aep=mclib |date=18 January 1847 |page=7 |issue=19449 |access-date=19 August 2011}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Many committees were formed in support of the cause and some previously established groups lent their support as well.<ref>Yale University Library holds full-text versions of the Ten Hours' Advocate in its microfilm department</ref> The campaign finally led to the passage of the [[Factory Act 1847]], which restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day.<ref>Bloy, Marjorie http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/factmine/factory.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310170558/http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/factmine/factory.htm |date=2014-03-10 }} "The Factory Question" accessed 20&nbsp;March 2009</ref>

===Working conditions===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Colliery.jpg|thumb|left|Men leaving the [[History of coal mining|pit]], before the start of [[World War I]]. The average [[life expectancy]] of a [[Liverpool]] mineworker was 30 years in 1900.]] -->
These early efforts were principally aimed at limiting child labour. From the mid-19th century, attention was first paid to the plight of [[working conditions]] for the workforce in general. In 1850, systematic reporting of fatal accidents was made compulsory, and basic safeguards for health, life and limb in the mines were put in place from 1855. Further regulations, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, signalling standards, and proper gauges and valves for steam-boilers and related machinery were also set down.

A series of further Acts, in 1860 and 1872 extended the legal provisions and strengthened safety provisions. The steady development of the coal industry, an increasing association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge paved the way for the Coal Mines Act of 1872, which extended the legislation to similar industries. The same Act included the first comprehensive code of regulation to govern legal safeguards for health, life and limb. The presence of more certified and competent management and increased levels of inspection were also provided for.

By the end of the century, a comprehensive set of regulations was in place in England that affected all industries. A similar system (with certain national differences) was implemented in other industrializing countries in the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century.