Editing Koi (section)

== History ==
[[Carp]] are a large group of fish species originally native to [[Central Europe]] and [[Asia]]. [[Asian carp|Various carp species]] were originally [[Domestication|domesticated]] in [[China]], where they were used primarily for consumption. Carp are [[coldwater fish]], and their ability to survive and adapt to many climates and water conditions allowed the domesticated species to be propagated to many new locations, including Japan.

=== Prehistory ===
In Japan, [[Miocene]] fossils of the [[Cyprinidae|carp family]] (''Cyprinidae'') have been excavated from [[Iki Island]], [[Nagasaki Prefecture]].<ref name = "Yabumoto">{{Cite journal |last = Yabumoto |first = Yoshitaka |title = Ikiculter chojabaruensis, a New Genus and Species of Cyprinid Fish from the Miocene of Iki Island, Nagasaki, Japan |journal = Paleontological Research |volume = 14 |issue = 4 |date = 2010 |pages = 277–292 |doi = 10.2517/1342-8144-14.4.277 |s2cid = 85972532 }}</ref> Furthermore, numerous carp [[pharyngeal teeth]] have been excavated from [[Jomon]] and [[Yayoi period|Yayoi]] period sites.<ref name = "Nakajima2011">{{Cite journal |last = Nakajima |first = Tsuneo |title = コイ科魚類咽頭歯遺存体から見える先史時代の漁撈と稲作との関係に関する一考察 |trans-title = A Speculation on Relationships between Freshwater Fishing and Rice Cultivation in Prehistoric Ages from a Viewpoint of Tooth Remains of Carps |journal = Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History |volume = 162 |publisher = National Museum of Japanese History |date = 31 January 2011 |doi = 10.15024/00001857 |pages = 49–63 }}</ref> For example, pharyngeal teeth of the extinct species ''Jōmon Koi'' (''Cyprinus sp.'')  in addition to the modern species of carp (''[[Cyprinus carpio]]'' or ''[[Cyprinus rubrofuscus]]'') have been excavated from the Akanoi Bay lakebed site ({{lang|ja|赤野井湾湖底遺跡}}) in [[Lake Biwa]] at the end of the Early Jomon Period (11,500 – 7,000 years ago).<ref name = "Nakajima2011" /> In addition, pharyngeal teeth of all six subfamilies of the Cyprinidae family living in Japan today, including carp (Cyprinus), have been found at the Awazu lakebed site ({{lang|ja|粟津湖底遺跡}}) dating from the Middle Jomon Period (5500 – 4400 years ago).<ref name = "Nakajima2011" />

There are differences in the length distribution of carp excavated from Jomon and Yayoi sites, as estimated from the size of their pharyngeal teeth. Specifically, not only adult carp but also juvenile carp (less than 150 mm in length) have been found at the Yayoi site. This difference is thought to be because the Jomon only collected carp from lakes and rivers, while the Yayoi cultivated primitive carp along with the spread of rice paddies.<ref name = "Nakajima2011" /><ref name = "Nakajima2010">{{Cite journal |last1 = Nakajima |first1 = T. |last2 = Nakajima |first2 = M. |last3 = Yamazaki |first3 = T. |title = Evidence for fish cultivation during the Yayoi Period in western Japan |journal = International Journal of Osteoarchaeology |volume = 20 |issue = 2 |date = 2010 |pages = 127–134 |doi = 10.1002/oa.1005 }}</ref>

It was previously thought that all Japanese carp were introduced from China in prehistoric times.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Jordan |first1 = David Starr |last2 = Fowler |first2 = Henry W |title = A review of the cyprinoid fishes of Japan. |journal = Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus. |issue = 1334 |date = 1903 |volume = 26 |pages = 811–862 |doi = 10.5479/si.00963801.26-1334.811 |url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/9451 |access-date = 4 January 2024 |archive-date = 14 March 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230314064516/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/9451 |url-status = live }}</ref> However, recent analysis of [[mitochondrial DNA]]  revealed a significant evolutionary divergence (phylogenetic split) within common carp Cyprinus carpio between the native wild form found in Lake Biwa and the Eurasian wild form, along with domesticated varieties. This supports the idea of the ancient origin of the native Japanese form (Cyprinus sp.), as well as the East Asian ancient lineage of wild common carp (C. carpio), previously proposed on the basis of fossil data. However, it is unknown when the carp from the continent was introduced to Japan. In addition, a possible multiple origin of koi carp was indicated by the polyphyletic distribution of five mtDNA haplotypes of koi carp within the ‘Eurasian’ clade.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{Cite journal|last1=Mabuchi|first1=K.|last2=Senou|first2=H.|last3=Suzuki|first3=T.|last4=Nishida|first4=M.|date=June 2005|title=Discovery of an ancient lineage of Cyprinus carpio from Lake Biwa, central Japan, based on mtDNA sequence data, with reference to possible multiple origins of koi|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0022-1112.2005.00676.x|journal=Journal of Fish Biology|volume=66|issue=6|pages=1516–1528|language=en|doi=10.1111/j.0022-1112.2005.00676.x|bibcode=2005JFBio..66.1516M|issn=0022-1112|url-access=subscription|access-date=3 October 2023|archive-date=10 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010105228/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0022-1112.2005.00676.x|url-status=live}}</ref> Moreover, the oldest record of the introduction of non-native fish in Japan is that of goldfish from China (1502 or 1602),<ref>{{Cite book |editor = Kokusho Kanko-kai |title = 雑芸叢書 |trans-title = Miscellaneous Art Series |volume = 1 |publisher = Kokusho Kan-kai |date = 1915 |doi = 10.11501/1869566 |page = 265 |author1 = 国書刊行会 }}</ref> and there is no record of carp (including colored carp) until the introduction of the [[mirror carp]], called ''Doitsugoi'' (German carp), in 1904.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Maruyama |first = Tamezo |title = 外国産新魚種の導入経過 |trans-title = Progress of introduction of new foreign fish species |publisher = Fisheries Agency, Research Department, Resources Division |date = March 1987 }}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
In the Japanese history book ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' (Chronicles of Japan, 720), it is written that [[Emperor Keikō]] released carp in a pond for viewing when he visited [[Mino Province]] (present [[Gifu Prefecture]]) in the fourth year of his reign (74 AD). In Cui Bao's ''Gǔjīnzhù'' ({{lang|zh|古今注}}, Annotations on the Ancient and Modern Period) from the [[Western Jin Dynasty]] (4th century A.D.) in China, carp of the following colors are described: red horse ({{lang|zh|赤驥}}), blue horse ({{lang|zh|青馬}}), black horse ({{lang|zh|玄駒}}), white horse ({{lang|zh|白騏}}), and yellow pheasant ({{lang|zh|黄雉}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%8A%E6%B3%A8|title=古今注 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=3 October 2023|archive-date=2 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002023338/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%8A%E6%B3%A8|url-status=live}}</ref> In China in those days, carp were called horses because they were believed to be the vehicles of hermits and to run in the sky.

Japan's oldest drug dictionary, Fukane Sukehito's ''[[:ja:本草和名|Honzō Wamyō]]'' ({{lang|ja|本草和名}}, 918) mentions red carp ({{lang|ja|赤鯉}}), blue carp ({{lang|ja|青鯉}}), black carp ({{lang|ja|黒鯉}}), white carp ({{lang|ja|白鯉}}), and yellow carp ({{lang|ja|黄鯉}}) as Japanese names corresponding to the above Chinese names, suggesting that carp of these colors existed in China and Japan in those days.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last = Fukae |editor-first = Sukehito |title = 本草和名 |trans-title = Honzō Wamyō |volume = 2 |publisher = Japan Society for the Publication of Complete Works of Classical Japanese Literature |date = 1927 |page = 19 |doi = 10.11501/1111774  |author1 = 深江, 輔仁, 平安中期 |author2 = 与謝野, 寛, 1873-1935 }}</ref> In addition, Hitomi Hitsudai's drug dictionary ''Honchō Shokkan'' ({{lang|ja|本朝食鑑}}, Japanese Medicine Encyclopedia, 1697) states that red, yellow, and white carp of the three colors were in Japan at that time.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Hitomi |first = Hitsudai |title =本朝食鑑 |trans-title = Japanese Medicine Encyclopedia |volume = 7 |publisher = Hirano Uji Denzaemon, Hiranoya Katsuzaemon |date = 1697 |doi = 10.11501/2569419 }}</ref>

However, it is believed that these single-colored carp were not a variety created by [[Selective breeding|artificial selection]], as is the case with today's koi, but rather a mutation-induced color change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last = Nakajima |first = Kenji |title = 魚病学基礎講座(錦鯉篇)1 |trans-title = Basic Fish Pathology (Nishikigoi) 1 |journal = Journal of the Japan Veterinary Medical Association |volume = 29 |issue = 1 |publisher = Japan Veterinary Medical Association |date = January 1976 |pages = 20–24 |doi = 10.12935/jvma1951.29.20 |issn = 0446-6454 |url = https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2010123255 |access-date = 3 October 2023 |archive-date = 27 September 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230927112708/https://agriknowledge.affrc.go.jp/RN/2010123255 |url-status = live }}</ref> In ancient times, carp was farmed primarily for food. Mutational color variation in carp is relatively common in nature, but is not suitable for development alongside farming for food in poor rural communities; color inheritance is unstable and selection to maintain color variation is costly. For example, in current-day farming of koi as ornamental fish, the percentage of superior colored fish to the number of spawn is less than 1%.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last = Kawamoto |editor-first = Nobuyuki |title = 養魚学各論 |trans-title = Introduction to Fish Farming |publisher = Koseisha Koseikaku |date = 1967 |doi = 10.11501/2513721 |page = 59 |author1 = 川本, 信之, 1898-1985 }}</ref>

The Amur carp (''[[Cyprinus rubrofuscus]]'') is a member of the cyprinid family [[species complex]] native to [[East Asia]]. Amur carp were previously identified as a subspecies of the common carp (as ''C. c. haematopterus''), but recent authorities treat it as a separate species under the name ''C. rubrofuscus''.<ref name="IUCN carpio">{{cite iucn |author=Freyhof, J. |author2=Kottelat, M. |date=2008 |title=''Cyprinus carpio'' |volume=2008 |page=e.T6181A12559362 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T6181A12559362.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> Amur carp have been [[aquaculture]]d as a food fish at least as long ago as the fifth century BC in China.

=== Modern period ===
[[File:Rice terraces, Yamakoshi, Niigata.jpg|thumb|alt=Terraced rice paddies in Yamakoshi, Niigata Prefecture|Terraced rice paddies in Yamakoshi, Niigata Prefecture]]
The systematic breeding of ornamental Amur carp began in the 1820s in an area known as "Nijūmuragō" ({{lang|ja|二十村郷}}, {{lit|twenty villages|lk=yes}}) which spans [[Ojiya, Niigata|Ojiya]] and [[Yamakoshi, Niigata|Yamakoshi]] in [[Niigata Prefecture]] (located on the northeastern coast of [[Honshu]]) in Japan. In Niigata Prefecture, Amur carp were farmed for food in Musubu Shinden, Kanbara County (present Akiba Ward, [[Niigata (city)|Niigata City]]) from the end of the [[Genna]] era (1615–1624).<ref>{{Cite book |last = Fujita |first = Masakatsu |title = 養魚経営学 |trans-title = Fish Farming Management |publisher = Suisan Shoin |date = November 1906 |doi = 10.11501/802628 |page = 18 }}</ref> In the Nijūmuragō area, carp were also farmed in terraced ponds near terraced rice paddies by 1781 at the latest, but the ponds ran dry due to a severe drought that occurred around that time, and the carp escaped the disaster by taking refuge in ponds on the grounds of Senryu Shrine in [[:ja:東山村 (新潟県古志郡)|Higashiyama Village]] and Juni Shrine in [[:ja:東竹沢村|Higashitakezawa Village]].<ref name = "tohaku">{{Cite book |editor = Tokyo Prefecture |title = 東京大正博覧会審査報告 |trans-title = Tokyo Taisho Exposition Examination Report |volume = 2 |publisher = Tokyo Prefecture |date = 1916 |page = 861 |doi = 10.11501/954707 |author1 = 東京府 }}</ref>

During the [[Bunka]] and [[Bunsei]] eras (1804 – 1830), people in the Nijūmuragō area bred red and white koi in addition to black koi, and crossed them to produce red and white colored koi. After that, they further crossed them and perfected them.<ref name = "tohaku" />

Around 1875, colored koi became popular and the number of breeders increased, and some expensive koi were produced, but Niigata Prefecture banned the aquaculture of ornamental koi because it was considered a speculative business, and the business suffered a major blow for a time. However, the ban was lifted soon after, thanks to the petition of the villagers. At that time, colored koi included ''Kōhaku'', ''Asagi'', ''Ki Utsuri'', etc.<ref>{{Cite book |editor = Niigata Prefectural Fisheries Experiment Station |title = 農家の副業的養魚法 |trans-title = Farmers' Sideline Fish Farming Methods |volume = 1 |publisher = Niigata Agricultural Society |date = 1931 |doi = 10.11501/1226542 |page = 100 |author1 = 新潟県水産試験場 }}</ref> From this original handful of koi varieties, all other Nishikigoi varieties were bred, with the exception of the Ogon variety (single-colored, metallic koi), which was developed relatively recently.<ref name = "jokc"/><ref name = "znahisja"/>

Koi breeding flourished in the Nijūmuragō area for two reasons: 1) the custom of raising koi in fallow fields for emergency food during the winter, and 2) the existence of many ''inden'' ({{lang|ja|隠田}}), or hidden rice fields in the mountains, unknown to the lord, which allowed the farmers to avoid taxes and become relatively wealthy. Breeding of koi was promoted as a hobby of farmers who could afford it, and high-quality individuals came to be bought and sold.

The name ''Nishikigoi'' (brocaded carp) did not exist until the 1910s. Before that time, ''Nishikigoi'' were called ''Madaragoi'' ({{lang|ja|斑鯉}}, {{lit|spotted carp|lk=yes}}), ''Kawarigoi'' ({{lang|ja|変鯉}}, {{lit|variant carp|lk=yes}}), ''Irogoi'' ({{lang|ja|色鯉}}, {{lit|colored carp|lk=yes}}), ''Moyōgoi'' ({{lang|ja|模様鯉}}, {{lit|patterned carp|lk=yes}}), and so on.

A geographical book on [[Suruga Province]] (present-day [[Shizuoka Prefecture]]), Abe Masanobu's ''Sunkoku Zasshi'' (1843), mentions that in addition to Asagi, purple, red, and white carp, there are "spotted carp (also known as Bekko carp)."<ref>{{Cite book |last = Abe |first = Masanobu |title = 駿国雑志 2 |trans-title = Suruga Miscellaneous Records 2 |publisher = Yoshimi Shoten |date = February 1977 |page = 311 |doi = 10.11501/9537491 }}</ref> This probably refers to two- or three-colored carp caused by mutation, and is a valuable record of ''Nishikigoi'' of the [[Edo period]] (1603 – 1868).

[[File:Sanshoku goi.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a three-colored carp in Ritsurin Garden, 1900. This is the oldest illustration of koi. It has the kanji characters for ''asagi'' on its back and red on its belly.]]
In 1900, there was a three-colored carp in [[Ritsurin Garden]] in [[Takamatsu]], [[Kagawa Prefecture]], and the price was over 1,000 yen per fish, which was a high price for that time.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Miyoshi |first = Otojiro |title = 金魚問答 |trans-title = Goldfish Question and Answer |publisher = Mataoma Yasujiro |date = 1903 |page = 79 |doi = 10.11501/904129 }}</ref> The three-colored carp had a red belly and ''asagi'' (light blue) back with black spots, and is thought to have been a mutation similar to today's ''Asagi'' koi.

[[File:Odd-eyed cat and Koi.jpg|thumb|Odd-eyed cat and Spotted carp, from the magazine ''Shonen'', 1910.]]
The magazine "Shonen" (1910) introduced ''Nishikigoi'' under the name of ''Madaragoi'' (spotted carp) or ''Kawarigoi'' (variant carp), and said that even skilled fish breeders did not know how they could produce ''Nishikigoi'', but only waited for them to be produced by chance.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last = Toyama |first = Kametaro |title = 金銀目の猫と源平咲別の花 |trans-title = Cat with gold and silver eyes and blooming flowers of two mixed colors |magazine = Shōnen |issue = 82 |publisher = Jijishinposha |date = June 1910 |doi = 10.11501/1793889 | page =143 }}</ref> The price of ''Nishikigoi'' at a fish show in [[Fukagawa, Tokyo|Fukagawa]], Tokyo, was 100 to 150 yen per fish, which was "extremely expensive" at the time. Therefore, even at that time, mutant ''Nishikigoi'' were known to some fish breeders and hobbyists in Tokyo, but artificial breeds such as Nijūmuragō's ''Nishikigoi'' were still unknown to the general public.

In 1914, when the [[:ja:東京大正博覧会|Tokyo Taishō Exposition]] was held, the "Koi Exhibit Association" was formed mainly by koi breeders in Higashiyama and Takezawa villages, and koi were exhibited. At the time, they were still called "colored carp" or "patterned carp," and they were described as "the first of their kind ever seen in the Tokyo area." And the koi received much attention, winning a silver medal.<ref>{{Cite book |editor = Tokyo Taisho Exposition |title = 東京大正博覧会出品審査概況 : 附・受賞人名簿  |trans-title = Overview of the Judging of Exhibits at the Tokyo Taisho Exposition |publisher = Tokyo Taisho Exposition Memorial Book Publishing Society |date = 1914 |page = 63 |doi = 10.11501/951452 |author1 = 東京大正博覧会 }}</ref> After the exposition closed, they presented eight koi to the Crown Prince ([[Emperor Showa]]). This exhibition triggered an expansion of sales channels, and the market value of koi soared.

In 1917, the ''Taishō Sanshoku'' (by Eizaburo Hoshino) was fixed as a breed. The name ''Nishikigoi'' is said to have been given by Kei Abe, who was the chief fisheries officer of the Niigata Prefectural Government in the [[Taishō era|Taisho era]] (1912–1926), after he admired the ''Taishō Sanshoku'' when he first saw it.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Tanaka |first = Shigeho |title = 日本の魚類 |trans-title = Fish of Japan |publisher = Dai Nippon Tosho |date = 1936 |page = 319 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |url = https://www.maff.go.jp/j/pr/aff/2308/spe1_03.html |title = 年々、人気上昇中！ 錦鯉の魅力 |trans-title = Increasingly popular every year! Attraction of Nishikigoi |magazine = aff |publisher = Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries |date = August 2023 |access-date = 7 October 2023 |archive-date = 7 October 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231007025804/https://www.maff.go.jp/j/pr/aff/2308/spe1_03.html |url-status = live }}</ref> In 1917, the fixation of ''Kōhaku'' (by Kunizo Hiroi), which had first been produced in the 1880s, was also assured.<ref name = "Tokuma">{{Cite book |editor = Tokuma Shoten |title = 錦鯉の魅力 : 泳ぐ宝石を育てるために |trans-title = Attraction of Nishikigoi : To raise swimming jewels |publisher = Tokuma Shoten |date = 1966 |doi = 10.11501/2510714 |author1 = 徳間書店 }}</ref>

Apart from the koi of Niigata Prefecture's Nijūmuragō area, there is a variety called ''Shūsui'' ({{lang|ja|秋翠}}), which was created by Tokyo-based goldfish breeder Kichigoro Akiyama in 1906 by crossing a female [[leather carp]] imported from Germany with a male Japanese ''Asagi'' or spotted carp.<ref name = "Tokuma" /> The leather carp is a low scaled variety bred in 1782 in Austria, and was sent to Japan from Munich, Germany in 1904, along with the mirror carp, which also has few scales. In Japan, these two varieties are called ''Doitsugoi'' (German carp), and ''Shūsui'' and its lineage are also called ''Doitsu'' or ''Doitsugoi'' in koi.

In 1927, ''Shōwa Sanshoku'' (by Shigekichi Hoshino) was fixed as a breed, and in 1939, koi were exhibited at the Japanese pavilion at the [[Golden Gate International Exposition]] held in San Francisco.<ref>{{Cite book |editor = Supervisory Bureau of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry |title = 紐育金門万国博覧会政府参同事務報告書 |trans-title = Report of the Government Visit to the [[Golden Gate International Exposition]] |publisher = Supervisory Bureau of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry |date = 1941 |page = 122 |doi = 
10.11501/1716726 |author1 = 商工省監理局 }}</ref>

=== Today ===
The hobby of keeping koi eventually spread worldwide. They are sold in many pet aquarium shops, with higher-quality fish available from specialist dealers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mpks.org/articles/RayJordan/KoiHistory3.shtml |title=MPKS Ray Jordan Koi History |publisher=Ray Jordan |access-date=26 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723111340/http://www.mpks.org/articles/RayJordan/KoiHistory3.shtml |archive-date=23 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.netpets.org/fish/reference/freshref/nishi.html |title=Early Records |publisher=Netpets.org |access-date=11 April 2009 |archive-date=13 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053139/http://netpets.org/fish/reference/freshref/nishi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Collecting koi has become a social hobby. Passionate hobbyists join clubs, share their knowledge and help each other with their koi.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfgI8wUC5JQC&q=koi+fish+information |title=The Ultimate Koi |last=Fletcher |first=Nick |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=Interpet |isbn=978-1-86054-146-9 |language=en |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=16 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516033009/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfgI8wUC5JQC&q=koi+fish+information#v=snippet&q=koi%20fish%20information&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In particular, since the 21st century, some wealthy Chinese have imported large quantities of koi from Niigata in Japan, and the price of high-quality carp has soared. In 2018, one carp was bought by a Chinese collector for about $2 million, the highest price ever. There are also cases in which purchased carp are bred in China and sold to foreign countries, and many breeds are spreading all over the world.<ref name = "gendai1"/><ref name = "gendai3"/>