Editing Kingdom of Nepal (section)

==History==

===18th century===
====Origins====
[[File:Prithvi_Narayan_Shah_(oldest_picture).jpg|thumb|[[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] the last king of the Gorkhas and the first king of the Nepalese kingdom after successfully conquering]]
The country was expanded from the one of the [[Chaubisi Rajya|Chaubise principality]] called the [[Gorkha Kingdom]].{{sfn|Whelpton|2005}}{{page needed|date=June 2023}} In Nepal, the warrior people are not referred to as 'Gurkhas', they are called 'Gorkhalis', meaning the 'inhabitants of Gorkha.' Their famed battle cry is ''"Jai [[Kali]], Jai [[Gorakhnath]], Jai [[Manakamana Temple|Manakamana]]"''.{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=98}}
 
The etymology of the geographical name 'Gorkha' is indeed related to the Hindu mendicant-saint [[Gorakshanath|Gorakhnath]]. In the village of Gorkha, there is a temple dedicated to Gorakhnath as well as another dedicated to Gorakhkali, a corresponding female deity. The Nepali geographical encyclopedia ''<nowiki/>'Mechi dekhi Mahakali''' (From Mechi to Mahakali) published in [[Vikram Samvat|B.S.]] 2013 (1974–75 AD) by the authoritarian Panchayat government to mark the coronation of King Birendra Shah agrees with the association of the name of the place with the saint but does not add any further detail.<ref name="Mechi-dekhi Mahakali p. 70">'Mechi-dekhi Mahakali, Vol. 3, Paschimanchal Bikas Kshetra' p. 70</ref> The facts regarding when the temples were built and the place named after the saint are lost in the sweeping winds of time. We may guess that these developments took place in the early part of the second millennium of the Common Era following the rise of the Nath sect. In fact, the pilgrimage circuit of the sect across the northern Indian sub-continent also spans a major part of Nepal including the Kathmandu Valley. The [[Newar people|Newars]] of Medieval Nepal have a couple of important temples and festivals dedicated to the major Nath teachers. Immediately before the rule of Gorkha by the Shahs, [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]] was inhabited by both aboriginee Aryan and Tibetan Mongoloid ethnic groups [[Magars]] the largest among the ethnic groups and ruled by the [[Magars]], Khadka Magar sub-clan of Rana-Magar and Ghale Magar sub-clan of Thapa-Magar clan, who were probably of [[Magars|Magar]] origin. At first, [[Dravya Shah]] captured [[liglig|Liglig-kot]] kingdom from [[Magars]] King Dalsur Ghale Magar.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 October 2016|title=King Dalsur Ghale Magar - Liglig-Kot, The Tradition of selecting the King - by Magar People|author=|work= Organising committee convenor, Purna Bahadur Rana|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/anish-thapa-magar-wins-crown-liglige-race-gorkha}}</ref>   Gangaram Rana Magar also helped Drabya Shah. After captured Ligligkot, (now Gorkha) [[Dravya Shah]] defeated the King [[Mansingh Khadka Magar]] in 1559 AD and commenced Shah rule over the principality.<ref name= "Mechi-dekhi Mahakali p. 70"/> [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] belonged to the ninth generation of the Shahs in Gorkha. He took the reins of power in 1742 AD.<ref>Sharma, Devi Prasad, ''Adhunik Nepal-ko Itihas (1742–1961 AD).'' [[Ratna Pustak Bhandar]]. Kathmandu. 1995.</ref>

====Expansion====
[[File:Kings Palace Gorkha Nepal.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The king's palace on a hill in [[Gorkha Municipality|Gorkha]] ]]
King [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]], the ruler of the small [[principality]] of [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]], initially drafted the [[Nepali Army|Gorkhali Army]].{{sfn|Adhikari|2015|p=153}} The Chief of the Gorkhali Army were drawn from [[Chhetri]] noble families of [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]] such as [[Pande family]], [[Basnyat family]] and [[Thapa dynasty]] before the rule of the [[Rana dynasty]].{{sfn|Adhikari|2015|p=154}} However, the first civilian army chief was ''Kaji'' [[Kalu Pande]] who had significant role in the [[Unification of Nepal|campaign of Nepal]].{{sfn|Adhikari|2015|p=153}} He was considered as an army head due to the undertaking of duties and responsibilities of the army but not by the formalization of the title.{{sfn|Adhikari|2015|p=153}}

====Battle of Nuwakot====
[[File:Bamshidhar Kalu Pande.jpg|thumb|''[[Kaji (Nepal)|Kaji]]'' [[Kalu Pande|Vamshidhar "Kalu" Pande]] of the [[Pande dynasty]]; ''[[Kaji (Nepal)|Kaji]]'' (equivalent to Prime Minister) of Gorkha; Commander of Gorkhali forces at victorious battle of Nuwakot]]
The first battle by Gorkhali forces united under King Prithvi Narayan Shah was the [[Battle of Nuwakot]]. The first army commander was ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande of the Pande noble family of Gorkha and [[Jayant Rana|Jayant Rana Magar]] (former [[Kaji (Nepal)|Kaji]] of Gorkha) was appointed General by King of Kantiur [[Jaya Prakash Malla]] to defend Nuwakot against Gorkha. Pande put up tactics to attack Nuwakot, a strategic fort of [[Malla (Kathmandu Valley)|Malla king of Kathmandu]], from multiple sides by surprise. On 26 September 1744, Pande with a contingent of soldiers climbed from the northern side of Nuwakot city at Mahamandal. He led the surprise attack with a Gorkhali war cry of ''"Jai [[Kali]], Jai [[Gorakhnath]], Jai [[Manakamana Temple|Manakamana]]"''.{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=98}} The panicked soldiers of Nuwakot under commander Shankha Mani Rana Magar (son of [[Jayant Rana|Jayant Rana Magar]]) tried to defend but lost after their commander was killed by the 13-year-old [[Dal Mardan Shah|Prince Dal Mardan Shah]], brother of the king.<ref name="nepalarmy">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/page/history |title=Nepali Army &#124; नेपाली सेना |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=31 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831031104/https://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/page/history |url-status=live }}</ref> The second contingent of Gorkhali forces led by ''Chautariya'' [[Mahoddam Kirti Shah]] (also a brother of the king) passed Dharampani and faced strong tussle but ultimately won over the defenders.<ref name="nepalarmy"/> The third part of the forces, led by the king himself, advanced to the fort of Nuwakotgadhi after the capture of Mahamandal. The soldiers panicked by death of their commander fled to Belkot ([[Jayant Rana|Jayant Rana Magar]] second fort) from the Nuwakot fort and Nuwakot was annexed by Gorkha.<ref name="nepalarmy"/>

====Battle of Kirtipur====
[[File:Gorkha3.jpg|thumb|Gorkhali soldiers preparing war against Kathmandu Valley]]
Despite his initial resentment that the valley kings were well prepared and the Gorkhalis were not, ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande agreed for a battle against the kingdom of [[Kirtipur]] in the [[Kathmandu valley]] on being insisted by the king. The Gorkhalis had set up a base in Naikap to mount their assaults on Kirtipur. They were armed with swords, bows and arrows and [[musket]]s.<ref>Vansittart, Eden (1896). ''Notes on Nepal''. Asian Educational Services. {{ISBN|978-81-206-0774-3}}. Page 34.</ref> The two forces fought on the plain of ''Tyangla Phant'' in the northwest of Kirtipur. Surapratap Shah, the king's brother, lost his right eye to an arrow while scaling the city wall. The Gorkhali commander ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande was surrounded and killed, and the Gorkhali king himself narrowly escaped with his life into the surrounding hills disguised as a saint.<ref>{{cite news |last=Majupuria |first=Trilok Chandra |title=Kirtipur: The Ancient Town on the Hill |url=http://www.nepal-traveller.com/index.php?action=articledetail&id=259 |access-date=18 October 2012 |newspaper=Nepal Traveller |date=March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014432/http://www.nepal-traveller.com/index.php?action=articledetail&id=259 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Daniel |url=https://archive.org/stream/HistoryOfNepal/HistoryOfNepaldanielWright#page/n269/mode/2up |title=History of Nepal |publisher=New Delhi: Asian Educational Services |year=1990 |access-date=7 November 2012}} Page 227.</ref> In 1767, King Prithvi Narayan Shah sent his army to attack Kirtipur for a third time under the command of Surapratap. In response, the three kings of the valley joined forces and sent their troops to the relief of Kirtipur, but they could not dislodge the Gorkhalis from their positions. A noble of Lalitpur named Danuvanta crossed over to Shah's side and treacherously let the Gorkhalis into the town.<ref name="Kirkpatrick 1811"/><ref>{{cite news |title= The city of good deeds |url= http://nepalitimes.com/issue/18/Culture/9018 |access-date= 18 October 2012 |newspaper= Nepali Times |date= 24–30 November 2000 |archive-date= 1 March 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120301023211/http://nepalitimes.com/issue/18/Culture/9018 |url-status= live }}</ref>

====Annexation of Makwanpur & Hariharpur====
King Digbardhan Sen and his minister Kanak Singh Baniya had already sent their families to safer grounds before the encirclement of their fortress. The Gorkhalis launched an attack on 21 August 1762. The battle lasted for eight hours. King Digbardhan and Kanak Singh escaped to Hariharpurgadhi. Makawanpur was thus annexed by the Gorkhali forces.<ref name="nepalarmy"/>
 
After occupying the [[Makawanpurgadhi Rural Municipality|Makawanpurgadhi]] fort, the Gorkhali forces started planning for an attack on [[Hariharpur Gadhi (fort)|Hariharpurgadhi]], a strategic fort on a mountain ridge of the [[Lower Himalayan Range|Mahabharat range]] south of Kathmandu. It controlled the route to the Kathmandu valley. At the dusk of 4 October 1762, the Gorkhalis launched an attack. The soldiers at [[Hariharpur Gadhi (fort)|Hariharpurgadhi]] fought valiantly against the Gorkhali forces but were ultimately forced to vacate the ''Gadhi'' (fort) after midnight. About 500 soldiers of Hariharpur died in the battle.<ref name="nepalarmy"/> [[Mir Qasim]], the [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad|Nawab of Bengal]] extended his help to kings of [[Kathmandu Valley|Kathmandu valley]] with his forces to attack the Gorkhali forces. On 20 January 1763, Gorkhali commander [[Vamsharaj Pande]] won the battle against Mir Qasim.<ref name="army">{{cite web|url=http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=two|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607215048/http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=two|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 June 2011|title=History of the Nepalese Army|publisher=Nepalese Army|access-date=7 October 2016}}</ref> Similarly, Captain Kinloch of British East India Company also extended his support by sending contingents against Gorkhalis. King Prithvi Narayan sent ''Kaji'' Vamsharaj Pande, [[Naahar Singh Basnyat]], Jeeva Shah, [[Ram Krishna Kunwar]] and others to defeat the forces of Gurgin Khan at Makwanpur.{{sfn|Vaidya|1993|p=180}}{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=202}}

====Conquest of Kathmandu valley and Declaration of Kingdom of Nepal====
The victory in the [[Battle of Kirtipur]] climaxed Shah's two-decade-long effort to take possession of the wealthy Kathmandu valley. After the fall of [[Kirtipur]], Shah took over the cities of [[Kathmandu]] and [[Lalitpur, Nepal|Lalitpur]] in 1768 and [[Bhaktapur]] in 1769, completing his conquest of the valley.<ref name="Kirkpatrick 1811"/> In a letter to Ram Krishna Kunwar, King Prithvi Narayan Shah expressed his unhappiness at the death of ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande in [[Kirtipur]] and thought it was impossible to conquer [[Kathmandu valley]] after the death of Kalu Pande.{{sfn|Vaidya|1993|p=151}} After the annexation of Kathmandu valley, King [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] praised in his letter about the valour and wisdom shown by Kunwar in the annexation of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur (collectively known as Nepal valley at the time).{{sfn|Regmi|1972|p=95}} Vamsharaj Pande, Kalu Pande's eldest son, was the commander of the Gorkhali forces who led the attack during the [[Battle of Bhaktapur]] on 14 April 1769.{{sfn|Vaidya|1993|p=163}}

====Conquest of the Kirata====
[[File:Abhiman Singh Basnyat.jpg|thumb|[[Abhiman Singh Basnet|Abhiman Singh Basnyat]], a military commander and later ''Mulkaji'']]
King Prithvi Narayan Shah had deployed ''Sardar'' Ram Krishna Kunwar to the invasion of [[Kirata Kingdom|Kirata]] regional areas comprising; Pallo Kirant ([[Limbuwan]]), Wallo Kirant and Majh Kirant (Khambuwan).{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=180}} On B.S. 1829 Bhadra 13 (i.e. 29 August 1772), Kunwar crossed the [[Dudh Koshi|Dudhkoshi river]] to invade King Karna Sen of the Majh Kirant (Khambuwan) and Saptari region{{sfn|Regmi|1972|p=95}} with fellow commander [[Abhiman Singh Basnet|Abhiman Singh Basnyat]].{{sfn|Vaidya|1993|p=165}} He then crossed the [[Arun River, China–Nepal|Arun river]] to reach Chainpur ([[Limbuwan]]),{{sfn|Vaidya|1993|p=167}} where he later achieved victory over the Kiratas.{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=181}} King Prithvi Narayan Shah bestowed 22 pairs of ''Shirpau'' (special headgear) in appreciation to Ram Krishna Kunwar after his victory over the Kirata region.{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=181}}

==== Political conflicts ====
In 1775, the [[King Prithivi Narayan Shah|King Prithvi Narayan Shah]], who expanded the Gorkha Kingdom into the Kingdom of Nepal, died in [[Nuwakot Palace|Nuwakot]].{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=73}} [[Swarup Singh Karki]], a shrewd Gorkhali courtier from a Chhetri family of eastern Nepal,{{sfn|Singh|1997|p=142}} marched with an army to Nuwakot to confine [[Bahadur Shah of Nepal|Prince Bahadur Shah]] who was then mourning the death of his father.{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=73}} He confined Bahadur Shah and Dal Mardan Shah with the consent from newly reigning [[Pratap Singh Shah|King Pratap Singh Shah]] who was considered to have no distinction of right and wrong.{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=73}} In the annual ''Pajani'' (renewal) of that year, Swarup Singh was promoted to the position of ''Kaji'' along with Abhiman Singh Basnyat, [[Amar Singh Thapa]] and Parashuram Thapa.{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=73}} In Falgun 1832 B.S., he succeeded in exiling Bahadur Shah, Dal Mardan Shah and ''Guru'' Gajraj Mishra on three heinous charges.{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=74}} The reign of Pratap Singh Shah was characterized by the constant rivalry between Swarup Singh and Vamsharaj Pande.{{sfn|Shaha|1990|p=43}} The document dated B.S. 1833 Bhadra 3 ''Roj'' 6 (i.e. Friday, 2 August 1776), shows that he had carried the title of Dewan along with Vamsharaj Pande.{{sfn|D.R. Regmi|1975|p=272}} King Pratap Singh Shah died on 22 November 1777{{sfn|Karmacharya|2005|p=36}} with his infant son [[Rana Bahadur Shah]] succeeding as the King of Nepal.{{sfn|D.R. Regmi|1975|p=285}} [[Sarbajit Rana Magar]] was made a ''[[Kaji (Nepal)|Kaji]]'' along with [[Balbhadra Shah]] and Vamsharaj Pande{{sfn|Shaha|1990|p=46}} while [[Daljit Shah]] was chosen as Chief ''Chautariya''.{{sfn|D.R. Regmi|1975|p=285}}{{sfn|Shaha|1990|p=46}} Historian [[Dilli Raman Regmi]] asserts that [[Sarbajit Rana|Sarbajit Rana Magar]] was chosen as ''Mulkaji'' (equivalent to Prime Minister),{{sfn|D.R. Regmi|1975|p=285}} while historian [[Rishikesh Shah]] asserts that Sarbajit Rana was the head of the Nepalese government only for a short period in 1778.{{sfn|Shaha|2001|p=21}} Afterwards, rivalry arose between Prince Bahadur Shah and [[Queen Rajendra of Nepal|Queen Rajendra Laxmi]]. Sarbajit Rana led the followers of the Queen opposed to Sriharsh Pant who led the followers of Bahadur Shah.<ref name="himalaya">{{cite web |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_121-122_01.pdf |title=Journal |website=himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=14 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214210207/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_121-122_01.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The group of ''Bharadars'' (officers) led by Sarbajit badmouthed Rajendra Laxmi against Bahadur Shah.{{sfn|Rana|1978|p=6}} Queen Rajendra Laxmi succeeded in the confinement of Bahadur Shah with the help of her new minister [[Sarbajit Rana|Sarbajit Rana Magar]].{{sfn|Mahesh Chandra Regmi|1975|p=214}} ''Guru'' Gajraj Mishra came to the rescue of Bahadur Shah on a condition that Bahadur Shah should leave the country.{{sfn|Mahesh Chandra Regmi|1975|p=214}}{{sfn|T.U. History Association|1977|p=5}} Also, his rival Sriharsh Pant was branded outcast and expelled instead of being executed as execution was prohibited for [[Brahmin]]s.<ref name="himalaya"/>
 
Prince Bahadur Shah confined his sister-in-law Queen [[Rajendra Rajya Laxmi Devi|Rajendra Laxmi]] on the charge of having illicit relation with [[Sarbajit Rana| Sarbajit Rana Magar]]{{Sfn|D.R. Regmi|1975|p=215}} on 31 August 1778.{{sfn|Karmacharya|2005|p=36}}{{sfn|D.R. Regmi|1975|p=294}}{{sfn|Bajracharya|1992|p=21}} Subsequently, Sarbajit was executed inside the palace by Bahadur Shah{{sfn|Mahesh Chandra Regmi|1975|p=215}}{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=76}} with the help of male servants of the royal palace.{{sfn|Mahesh Chandra Regmi|1975|p=215}} Historian Bhadra Ratna Bajracharya asserts that it was actually ''Chautariya'' Daljit Shah who led the opposing group against [[Sarbajit Rana| Sarbajit Rana Magar]] and [[Rajendra Rajya Laxmi Devi|Queen Rajendra Rajya Laxmi Devi]].{{sfn|Bajracharya|1992|pp=21–22}} The letter dated B.S. 1835 Bhadra 11 ''Roj'' 4 (1778) to Narayan Malla and Vrajabasi Pande asserts the death of Sarbajit under misconduct and the appointment of Bahadur Shah as [[regent]].{{sfn|Karmacharya|2005|p=36}} The death of [[Sarbajit Rana|Sarbajit Rana Magar]] is considered to have marked the initiation of court conspiracies and massacres in the newly unified Kingdom of Nepal.{{sfn|T.U. History Association|1977|p=5}} Historian [[Baburam Acharya]] points that the sanctions against Queen Rajendra Laxmi under moral misconduct was a mistake of Bahadur Shah. Similarly, the murder of [[Sarbajit Rana Magar]] was condemned by many historians as an act of injustice.{{sfn|Bajracharya|1992|p=22}}
 
Vamsharaj Pande, once Dewan of Nepal and son of the popular commander Kalu Pande, was beheaded on the allegations of conspiring with Queen Rajendra Laxmi.{{sfn|Karmacharya|2005|p=46}}{{sfn|Shaha|2001|p=62}} In a special tribunal meeting at Bhandarkhal garden east of Kathmandu Durbar, Swaroop Singh held Vamsharaj liable for letting the King of Parbat, Kirtibam Malla, run away in the battle a year ago.{{sfn|Bajracharya|1992|p=35}} He had a fiery conversation with Vamsharaj before Vamsharaj was declared guilty and was subsequently executed by beheading on the tribunal.<ref name="himalaya"/> Historian [[Rishikesh Shah]] and Ganga Karmacharya claim that he was executed in March 1785,{{sfn|Karmacharya|2005|p=46}}{{sfn|Shaha|2001|p=62}} whereas Bhadra Ratna Bajracharya and Tulsi Ram Vaidya claim that he was executed on 21 April 1785.{{sfn|Bajracharya|1992|p=35}}<ref name="himalaya"/> On 2 July 1785, Swaroop Singh's opponent Prince Regent Bahadur Shah was arrested, but on the eleventh day of imprisonment, on 13 July, Singh's only supporter Queen Rajendra Laxmi died.{{sfn|Karmacharya|2005|p=46}}{{sfn|Shaha|2001|p=62}} Then onwards, Bahadur Shah took over the regency of his nephew King Rana Bahadur Shah{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=10}} and as one of his first orders as the regent, he ordered Swaroop Singh, who was then in [[Pokhara]], to be beheaded there{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=77}}{{sfn|Shaha|2001|p=63}} on the charges of [[treason]].{{sfn|Hamal|1995|p=81}} Singh had gone to Kaski to join Daljit Shah's military campaign of Kaski fearing retaliation of the old courtiers due to his conspiracy against Vamsharaj. He was executed on B.S. 1842 Shrawan 24.{{sfn|Puratattva Bibhag|1990|p=77}}

====Tibetan conflict====
{{Further|Sino-Nepalese War}}
After the death of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the Shah dynasty began to expand their kingdom into what is present-day [[North India]]. Between 1788 and 1791, Nepal invaded Tibet and robbed [[Tashi Lhunpo Monastery]] of [[Shigatse]]. Tibet sought Chinese help and the [[Qianlong Emperor]] of the Chinese [[Qing dynasty|Qing Dynasty]] appointed [[Fuk'anggan]] commander-in-chief of the Tibetan campaign. Heavy damages were inflicted on both sides. The Nepali forces retreated step by step back to Nuwakot to stretch Sino-Tibetan forces uncomfortably. Chinese launched an uphill attack during the daylight and failed to succeed due to a strong counterattack with [[Kukri|khukuri]] at Nuwakot.<ref name="nepalarmythree"/> The Chinese army suffered a major setback when they tried to cross a monsoon-flooded Betrawati, close to the Gorkhali palace in Nuwakot.<ref>Stiller, L.F., "The Rise of the House of Gorkha." Patna Jesuit Society. Patna. 1975.</ref> A stalemate ensued when Fuk'anggan was keen to protect his troops and wanted to negotiate at Nuwakot.

===19th century===

====Dominance of Damodar Pande====
{{main|Pande dynasty}}
[[File:Damodar Pande.jpg|thumb|[[Damodar Pande]], ''Mulkaji'' of Nepal from the Pande aristocratic family]]
 
[[Damodar Pande]] was appointed as one of the four Kajis by [[Rana Bahadur Shah|King Rana Bahadur Shah]] after the removal of ''Chautariya'' Bahadur Shah in 1794.{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=12}} Pande was the most influential and dominant amongst the court factions in spite of the post of ''Mulkaji'' being held by [[Kirtiman Singh Basnyat]].{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=12}} Pandes were the most dominant noble family. Later due to the continuous irrational behaviour of King Rana Bahadur Shah, a situation of civil war arose where Damodar was the main opposition to the King.{{sfn|Acharya|2012|pp=28–32}} He was forced to flee to the British-controlled city of [[Varanasi]] in May 1800 after the military parted with influential ''Kaji'' Damodar Pande.{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=13}}{{sfn|Acharya|2012|pp=28–32}} After [[Raj Rajeshwari Devi|Queen Rajrajeshwari]] finally managed to assume the regency on 17 December 1802,{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=14}}{{sfn|Acharya|2012|pp=36–37}} later in February she appointed Damodar Pande as the ''Mulkaji''.{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=43}}
 
After Rana Bahadur's reinstatement to power, he ordered Damodar Pande, along with his two eldest sons, who were completely innocent, to be executed on 13 March 1804; similarly, some members of his faction were tortured and executed without any due trial, while many others managed to escape to India. Among those who managed to escape to India were Damodar Pande's sons [[Karbir Pande]] and [[Rana Jang Pande]].{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=54}}{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=54}}{{sfn|Nepal|2007|p=57}} After Damodar Pande's execution, [[Ranajit Pande]] who was his paternal cousin, was appointed ''Mulkaji'' along with Bhimsen Thapa as second ''Kaji'', [[Sher Bahadur Shah]] as ''Mul Chautariya'' and [[Ranganath Paudel]] as ''Raj Guru'' (Royal Preceptor).{{sfn|Nepal|2007|p=58}}{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=55}}

====Thapa Regime====
{{main|Thapa dynasty}}
[[File:Bhimsen Thapa of Nepal (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|''Mukhtiyar'' [[Bhimsen Thapa]], founder of Khas [[Thapa dynasty]]]]
Thapa courtiers, who were Kshatriya, rose to power when the King Rana Bahadur Shah was murdered by his half brother Sher Bahadur Shah in 1806.<ref name="Pradhan">{{Cite book | last = Pradhan | first = Kumar L. | title = Thapa Politics in Nepal: With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839 | publisher = Concept Publishing Company | year = 2012 | isbn = 9788180698132 | location = New Delhi | pages = 278 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7PP1yElRzIUC }}</ref> [[Bhimsen Thapa]] (1775–1839), the leading [[Thapa Kaji]], taking opportunity of the occasion massacred nearly 55 military and civil officers and catapulting the Thapas into the power.<ref name="Pradhan"/> He took the title of ''Mukhtiyar'' succeeding Rana Bahadur as the chief authority and his niece [[Queen Tripurasundari of Nepal|Queen Tripurasundari]] as Queen Regent of junior [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah|King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah]].<ref>{{citation | last = Acharya | first = Baburam | editor-last = Acharya | editor-first = Shri Krishna |title =  Janaral Bhimsen Thapa : Yinko Utthan Tatha Pattan | location = Kathmandu | year = 2012 | pages = 228 | language = ne | publisher = Education Book House | isbn = 9789937241748}}</ref>

====Anglo-Nepalese War====
{{Main|Anglo-Nepalese War}}
[[File:Lost territories of Nepal after Treaty of Sugauli.jpg|thumb|Territories ceded by Nepal after the [[Treaty of Sugauli]]]]

Rivalry between Nepal and the [[East India Company]]—over the princely states bordering Nepal and India—eventually led to the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1814–16). The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] was signed in 1816, ceding large parts of the Nepali territories of the Terai and [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]], which accounted to nearly one-third of the country, to the East India Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. As the territories were not restored to Nepal by the British government when India became [[Indian independence movement|independent from British rule]], most of these lands later became a part of the [[India|Republic of India]]. Sikkim remained independent until annexed into India in 1975 when it becomes [[Sikkim|the 22nd state of the Republic of India]]. However, in 1860 the British returned the authority over some of Nepal's land in the Terai back to Nepal (known as ''[[Naya Muluk]]'', new country) as an act of gratitude for Nepalese support to Britain during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

====Rana Regime====
{{Main|Rana dynasty}}
[[File:Chandra_Shamsher_and_sons.jpg|thumb|Maharaja of Kaski and Lamjung and [[Prime Minister of Nepal]] [[Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana]] and his 8 sons who were one of the most powerful factions of Ranas of Nepal]]
Factionalism among the royal family led to a period of instability after the war. In 1846, [[Rajya Lakshmi Devi|Queen Rajya Lakshmi Devi]] plotted to overthrow [[Jung Bahadur Rana|Jang Bahadur Rana]], a fast-rising military leader who was presenting a threat to her power. The plot was uncovered and the queen had several hundred princes and chieftains executed after an armed clash between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen. This came to be known as the [[Kot Massacre]]. However, Jung Bahadur emerged victorious eventually and founded the [[Rana dynasty]]; the monarch was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary, held by the Ranas.

==== Third Nepalese Tibet War ====
{{main|Nepalese-Tibetan War}}
[[Jung Bahadur Rana]] sent forces under his brothers [[Bam Bahadur Kunwar]] and [[Dhir Shamsher Rana]] to attack Tibet again to achieve complete victory. His forces succeeded in defeating Tibetan forces on two sides. The Tibetan team arrived in January 1856 to sign a treaty. After a month, the [[Treaty of Thapathali]] was signed which was more favourable to Nepal.<ref name="nepalarmythree"/>

===20th century===
[[File:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Rani (Queen) of Nepal surrounded by her Ladies-in-Waiting, 1920]]

==== Nepal and the British ====
The Rana regime, a tightly centralized [[autocracy]], pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the [[British Empire|British colonial era]], but it also impeded the country's economic development and modernisation. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted the British during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] and later in both [[World war|World Wars]]. At the same time, despite Chinese claims, the British supported Nepalese independence at the beginning of the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Matteo Miele|title = British Diplomatic Views on Nepal and the Final Stage of the Ch'ing Empire (1910–1911)|journal = Prague Papers on the History of International Relations|date = October 2017|issue = 1|url = https://sites.ff.cuni.cz/praguepapers/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2017/09/Matteo_Miele_90-101.pdf|pages = 90–101|access-date = 10 October 2017|archive-date = 10 October 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171010212110/https://sites.ff.cuni.cz/praguepapers/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2017/09/Matteo_Miele_90-101.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref>
 
In December 1923, Britain and Nepal formally signed a [[Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923|treaty of perpetual peace and friendship]] superseding the Sugauli Treaty of 1816 and upgrading the British resident in Kathmandu to an envoy. Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924.<ref>Tucci, Giuseppe. (1952). ''Journey to Mustang, 1952''. Trans. by Diana Fussell. 1st Italian edition, 1953; 1st English edition, 1977. 2nd edition revised, 2003, p. 22. Bibliotheca Himalayica. {{ISBN|99933-0-378-X}} (South Asia); 974-524-024-9 (Outside of South Asia).</ref>

====Democratic reform====
{{Main|Democracy movement in Nepal}}
 
Popular dissatisfaction against the family rule of the Ranas had started emerging from among the few educated people, who had studied in various Indian schools and colleges, and also from within the Ranas, many of whom were marginalised within the ruling Rana hierarchy. Many of these Nepalese in exile had actively taken part in the Indian Independence struggle and wanted to liberate Nepal as well from the internal autocratic Rana occupation. The political parties such as the ''[[Nepal Praja Parishad|Praja Parishad]]'' and [[Nepali Congress]] were already formed in exile by leaders such as [[B. P. Koirala|B.P. Koirala]], [[Ganesh Man Singh]], [[Subarna Shamsher Rana]], [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]], [[Girija Prasad Koirala]] and many other patriotic-minded Nepalis who urged the military and popular political movement in Nepal to overthrow the autocratic Rana Regime. Among the prominent martyrs to die for the cause, executed at the hands of the Ranas, were [[Dharma Bhakta Mathema]], [[Shukraraj Shastri]], [[Gangalal Shrestha]] and [[Dashrath Chand|Dasharath Chand]]. This turmoil culminated in [[Tribhuvan of Nepal|King Tribhuvan]], a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fleeing from his 'palace prison' in 1950, to the newly independent India, touching off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This eventually ended in the return of the Shah family to power and the appointment of a non-Rana as prime minister. A period of the quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model.
 
In early 1959, Tribhuvan's son [[Mahendra of Nepal|King Mahendra]] issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, B.P. Koirala, formed a government and served as prime minister. After a period of power wrangling between the king and the elected government, Mahendra dissolved the democratic experiment in 1960.

====King Mahendra's new constitution====
{{main|Panchayat (Nepal)}}
Declaring the contemporary parliament a failure, King Mahendra in 1960 dismissed the Koirala government, declared that a "party-less" [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat]] system would govern Nepal, and promulgated another new constitution on 16 December 1962.
 
Subsequently, the Prime Minister, members of parliament and hundreds of democratic activists were arrested. In fact, this trend of the arrest of political activists and democratic supporters continued for the entire 30-year period of the partyless Panchayat system under King Mahendra and then his son, [[Birendra of Nepal|King Birendra]].
 
The new constitution established a "partyless" system of panchayats (councils), which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government, closer to Nepalese traditions. As a pyramidal structure, progressing from village assemblies to a [[Rastriya Panchayat]] (National Parliament), the panchayat system constitutionalised the absolute power of the monarchy and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the cabinet (council of ministers) and the parliament. One-state-one-language became the national policy, and all other languages suffered at the cost of the official language, [[Nepali language|Nepali]], which was the king's language.
 
King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27-year-old son, King Birendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a [[1980 Nepalese governmental system referendum|national referendum]] to decide on the nature of Nepal's government: either the continuation of the panchayat system with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was held in May 1980, and the Panchayat system won a narrow victory. The king carried out the promised reforms, including a selection of the prime minister by the Rashtriya Panchayat.

===End of Panchayat system===
There was resentment against the authoritarian regime and the curbs on the freedom of the political parties. There was a widespread feeling of the palace being non-representative of the masses, especially when the [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha|Marich Man Singh]] government faced political scandals on charges of misappropriation of funds allotted for the victims of the [[1988 Nepal earthquake|earthquake in August 1998]] or when it reshuffled the cabinet instead of investigating the deaths of the people in a stampede in the national sports complex in a hailstorm. Also, the souring of the [[India–Nepal relations|India-Nepal trade relations]] affected the popularity of the Singh government.
 
In April 1987, Nepal had introduced the work permit for Indian workers in three of its districts, and in early 1989, Nepal provided 40% duty concession to Chinese goods and later withdrew duty concessions from Indian goods in such a manner that the Chinese goods became cheaper than the Indian goods. This led to the souring of relations which were already strained over the purchase of Chinese arms by Nepal in 1988. India refused to renew two separate Treaties of Trade and Transit and insisted on a single treaty dealing with the two issues, which was not acceptable to Nepal. A deadlock ensued and the Treaties of Trade and Transit expired on 23 March 1989. The brunt of the closure of the trade and transit points was mainly faced by the lower classes in Nepal due to the restricted supply of consumer goods and petroleum products such as petrol, aviation fuel and kerosene. The industries suffered because of their dependence on India for resources, trade and transit. The Government of Nepal tried to deal with the situation by depending on foreign aid from the US, UK, Australia and China. However, the government's strategy to manage the crisis could not satisfy those people who desired negotiations with India rather than dependence on foreign aid as a solution.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}
 
Taking advantage of the uneasiness amongst some people against the government and the strained India-Nepal relations, the Nepali Congress (NC) and the left-wing parties blamed the government for perpetuating the crisis and not taking any serious measures to solve it. In December 1989, the NC tried to utilize B.P. Koirala's anniversary by launching a people's awareness program. The left-wing alliance known as the United Left Front (ULF) extended its support to the NC in its campaign for a party system. On 18–19 January 1990, the NC held a conference in which leaders from various countries and members of the foreign Press were invited. Leaders from India attended the conference; Germany, Japan, Spain, Finland supported the movement; and the Embassies of the US and West Germany were present on the occasion. Inspired by the international support and the democratic movements occurring throughout the world after the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1989, the NC and the ULF launched a mass movement on 18 February to end the Panchayat regime and the installation of an interim government represented by various parties and people.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}
 
On 6 April the Marich Man Singh government was dismissed and Lokendra Bahadur Chand became the Prime Minister on the same day. However, the agitating mob was not satisfied with the change of government as they were not against the Singh government per se but against the party-less system. On 16 April the Chand government was also dismissed and a Royal Proclamation was issued the next day which dissolved the National Panchayat, the Panchayat policy and the evaluation committee and the class organizations. Instead, the proclamation declared "functioning of the political parties" and maintained that "all political parties will always keep the national interest uppermost in organizing themselves according to their political ideology."''{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}''
 
During this protest many civilians were killed; after the end of the Panchayat rule they were seen as 'undeclared martyrs'. One of those martyrs is Ram Chandra Hamal, a member of the Nepali Congress and killed during his imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/nepal/60.htm|title=Nepal – The Panchayat System|website=countrystudies.us|access-date=6 August 2017|archive-date=3 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103013135/http://countrystudies.us/nepal/60.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===1990 People's Movement===
{{Main|1990 Nepalese revolution}}
People in rural areas had expected that their interests would be better represented after the adoption of parliamentary democracy in 1990. The [[Nepali Congress]] with the support of "Alliance of leftist parties" decided to launch a decisive agitational movement, [[1990 Nepalese revolution|Jana Andolan]], which forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections in nearly 50 years. The Nepali Congress won 110 of the 205 seats and formed the first elected government in 32 years.

====Civil strife====
In 1992, in a situation of economic crisis and chaos, with spiraling prices as a result of the implementation of changes in the policy of the new Congress government, the radical left stepped up their political agitation. A Joint People's Agitation Committee was set up by the various groups.<ref>The organisers of the Committee were the [[Samyukta Janamorcha Nepal]], the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre)]], [[Communist Party of Nepal (Masal) (historical)|Communist Party of Nepal (Masal)]], the [[Nepal Communist League]] and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]].</ref> A [[hartal|general strike]] was called for 6 April.
 
Violent incidents began to occur on the evening before the strike. The Joint People's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute 'lights out' in the capital, and violence erupted outside [[Bir Hospital]] when activists tried to enforce the 'lights out'. At dawn on 6 April, clashes between strike activists and police, outside a police station in [[Palchok|Pulchok]] (Patan), left two activists dead.
 
Later in the day, a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at [[Tundikhel]] in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces. As a result, riots broke out and the [[Nepal Telecom]]munications building was set on fire; police opened fire at the crowd, killing several people. The Human Rights Organization of Nepal estimated that 14 people, including several onlookers, had been killed in police firing.<ref>Hoftun, Martin, William Raeper and John Whelpton. People, politics and ideology: Democracy and Social Change in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point, 1999. p. 189</ref>
 
When promised land reforms failed to appear, people in some districts started to organize to enact their own land reform and to gain some power over their lives in the face of usurious landlords. However, this movement was repressed by the Nepali government, in Operation Romeo and Operation Kilo Sera II, which took the lives of many of the leading activists of the struggle. As a result, many witnesses to this repression became radicalized.

====Nepalese Civil War====
{{Main|Nepalese Civil War}}
In February 1996, one of the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)|Maoist]] parties started a bid to replace the parliamentary monarchy with a people's new democratic republic, through a Maoist revolutionary strategy known as the [[people's war]], which led to the [[Nepalese Civil War]]. Led by [[Baburam Bhattarai|Dr. Baburam Bhattarai]] and [[Pushpa Kamal Dahal]] (better known by his ''[[nom de guerre]]'' "Prachanda"), the insurgency began in five districts in Nepal: [[Rolpa District|Rolpa]], [[Rukum]], [[Jajarkot District|Jajarkot]], [[Gorkha District|Gorkha]], and [[Sindhuli]]. The Maoists declared the existence of a provisional "people's government" at the district level in several locations.

===21st century===

====Palace massacre====
{{Main|Nepalese royal massacre}}
[[File:Narayanhiti Palace Museum.jpg|thumb|400px|The Narayanhiti Palace where the royal massacre occurred]]
On 1 June 2001, Crown Prince [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] allegedly went on a [[Nepalese royal massacre|shooting-spree]], assassinating 9 members of the royal family, including [[Birendra of Nepal|King Birendra]] and [[Queen Aishwarya of Nepal|Queen Aishwarya]], before shooting himself. Due to his survival, he temporarily became king before dying of his wounds, after which [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Prince Gyanendra]] (Birendra's brother) inherited the throne, according to tradition. The massacre shattered the aura of mythology that still surrounded the Royal Family, exposing their far too human intrigues.
 
Meanwhile, the Maoist rebellion escalated, and in October 2002 the king temporarily deposed the government and took complete control of it.<ref>{{citation | editor = Mahendra Lawoti and Anup K. Pahari |title =  The Maoist Insurgency in Nepal | year = 2012 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 9780415777179}}</ref> A week later he reappointed another government, but the country was still unstable because of the civil war with the Maoists, the various clamouring political factions, the king's attempts to take more control of the government, and worries about the competence of Gyanendra's son and heir, [[Paras Shah|Prince Paras]].

====Suspension of responsible government====
In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy began to wane. On 1 February 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and took to exercising his executive powers without ministerial advice, declaring a "[[state of emergency]]" to quash the Maoist movement. Politicians were placed under [[house arrest]], phone and internet lines were cut, and freedom of the press was severely curtailed.

====2006 democracy movement====
{{Main|2006 Nepalese revolution}}
 
The king's new regime made little progress in his stated aim of suppressing the insurgents. The [[European Union]] described the municipal elections of February 2006 as "a backward step for democracy", as the major parties [[election boycott|boycotted the election]] and the army forced some candidates to run for office.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/comment/story/0,,1699935,00.html |title=When a king's looking-glass world is paid for in blood |website=[[TheGuardian.com]] |date=2 February 2006 |access-date=12 December 2016 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819145736/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/02/china.eu |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2006 [[2006 Nepalese revolution|strikes and street protests in Kathmandu]] forced the king to reinstate the parliament. A seven-party coalition resumed control of the government and stripped the king of most of his powers. As of 15 January 2007, a [[Unicameralism|unicameral legislature]] under an interim constitution governed Nepal.

====Abolition of the monarchy====
The [[1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] came to fruition on 24 December 2007 when it was announced that the monarchy would be abolished in 2008 after the [[2008 Nepalese Constituent Assembly election|Constituent Assembly election]]s;<ref name=abolish>{{cite news| title =Nepalese monarchy to be abolished| publisher =BBC| date =24 December 2007| url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7158670.stm| access-date =25 December 2007| archive-date =25 December 2007| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20071225081804/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7158670.stm| url-status =live}}</ref> and on 28 May 2008, Nepal was declared a ''Federal Democratic Republic''.