Editing Kassites (section)

==History==
Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic). Many of those tablets have not yet been published, including hundreds held in the Ottoman Museum in Istanbul.<ref>[https://melc.berkeley.edu/Web_Veldhuis/articles/Kassite_exercises.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122165708/https://melc.berkeley.edu/Web_Veldhuis/articles/Kassite_exercises.pdf|date=2022-01-22}} Veldhuis, Niek. "Kassite Exercises: Literary and Lexical Extracts." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 52, 2000, pp. 67–94</ref><ref>Biggs, Robert D. “A Letter from Kassite Nippur.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 19, no. 4, 1965, pp. 95–102</ref>

About 100 Kassite tablets were found at Dur-Kurigalzu.<ref>O. R. Gurney, Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, vol. 11, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;131–149, 1949</ref><ref>O. R. Gurney, Further Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Sumer, vol. 9, pp.&nbsp;21–34, 1953</ref> A few inscribed building materials of Kurigalzu I were found at Kish.<ref>T. Clayden. “Kish in the Kassite Period (c. 1650-1150 B.C.).” Iraq, vol. 54, 1992, pp. 141–55</ref> Several tablets dated to the reign of Agum III were found at the [[Dilmun]] site of [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]].<ref>Højlund, Flemming. Qala'at al-Bahrain/2 The central monumental buildings. Aarhus Univ. Press, 1997</ref> In total, about 12,000 Kassite period documents have been recovered, of which only around 10% have been published. There are also a number of building inscriptions, all but one written in Sumerian unlike the Akkadian typically used by the Kassites.<ref>[https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/mskh1.pdf] Brinkman, J.A. 1976. Materials and Studies for Kassite History. Vol. 1, pt. A, Catalogue of Cuneiform Sources Pertaining to Specific Monarchs of the Kassite Dynasty. Chicago: Chicago University Press.</ref> A number of seals have also been found.<ref>[https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/150405/1/Matthews_1992_The_Kassite_Glyptic_of_Nippur.pdf] Donalds M Matthews, The Kassite Glyptic of Nippur, Freiburg, Switzerland / Göttingen,Germany: Universitätsverlag / Vandenhoeck Ruprecht, 1992</ref><ref>Kjaerum, F. “SEALS OF ‘DILMUN-TYPE’ FROM FAILAKA, KUWAIT.” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 10, 1980, pp. 45–53</ref> [[Kudurru]]s, stone stele used to record land grants and related documents, provide another source for Kassite history.<ref>Paulus, Susanne. "10. The Babylonian Kudurru Inscriptions and their Legal and Sociohistorical Implications". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 229-244</ref> This practice continued for several centuries after the end of the Kassite Dynasty.<ref>Brinkman, J. A. “Babylonian Royal Land Grants, Memorials of Financial Interest, and Invocation of the Divine.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 49, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1–47</ref> Often situated on the surface, many were found early and made their way to museums around the world.<ref>Lambert, W. G. “The Warwick Kudurru.” Syria, vol. 58, no. 1/2, 1981, pp. 173–85</ref>

[[File:Cylinder seal of king Kirigalzu II Louvre Museum AOD 105.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Cylinder seal of Kassite king [[Kurigalzu II]] (c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105]]
The ancient city of [[Nippur]] was a major focus for the Kassites. Early on, refurbishments were conducted of the various religious and administrative buildings, the first of these datable to Kurigalzu I. Major construction occurred under Kadashman-Enlil, Kudur-Enlil, and Shagarakti-Shuriash, with lesser levels of repair work under Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak.<ref>Schneider, Bernhard. "Studies Concerning the Kassite Period Ekur of Nippur: Construction History and Finds". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 146-164</ref> Other important centers during the Kassite period were [[Larsa]], [[Sippar]] and [[Susa]]. The Kassites were very active at [[Ur]].<ref>Brinkman, John Anthony. "Ur:" The Kassite Period and the Period of the Assyrian Kings"." (1969): 310-348</ref> At the site of [[Isin]], which had been abandoned after the time of Samsu-iluna, major rebuilding work occurred on the religious district including the temple of [[Gula (goddess)|Gula]]. The work at Isin was initiated by Kurigalzu I and continued by Kadashman-Enlil I, and after a lapse, by Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak II.<ref>Kaniuth, Kai. "18. Isin in the Kassite Period". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 492-507</ref> After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin.<ref>Brinkman, J. A. “Provincial Administration in Babylonia under the Second Dynasty of Isin.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 6, no. 3, 1963, pp. 233–42</ref>

=== Origins ===
The origin of the Kassites is uncertain, though a number of theories have been advanced. Several suspected Kassite names are recorded in economic documents from the [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ur III]] period (c. 2112–2004 BC) in southern [[Babylon]], but their origin is ambiguous.<ref>J. A. Brinkman, “Kassiten (Kassû),” RLA, vol. 5 (1976–80</ref> They are thought to originate from the [[Zagros Mountains]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kassites |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/kassites}}</ref> Kassites were first reported in [[Babylonia]] in the 18th century BC, especially around the area of [[Sippar]]. The 9th year name of king [[Samsu-iluna]] (1749–1712 BC) of [[Babylon]], the son of [[Hammurabi]] mentions them ie. ("Year in which Samsu-iluna the king (defeated) the totality of the strength of the army / the troops of the Kassites").<ref>[https://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/HTML/T12K7.htm Year Names at CDLI]</ref>

===Middle Bronze Age===
As the Babylonian empire weakened in the following years the Kassites became a part of the landscape, even at times supplying troops for Babylon.<ref>[https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/179897/1/179897.pdf] Claudia Glatz, et al., Babylonian Encounters in the Upper Diyala River Valley: Contextualizing the Results of Regional Survey and the 2016–2017 Excavations at Khani Masi, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 123, No. 3 (July 2019), pp. 439-471</ref>
The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god [[Marduk]], but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city ''Karanduniash'', re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia.

=== Late Bronze Age ===
[[File:Kudurru Louvre Sb31.jpg|thumb|Kassite [[Kudurru]] stele of Kassite king [[Marduk-apla-iddina I]]. [[Louvre Museum]].]]

The fall of the [[First Sealand dynasty]] in 1460 BC created a power vacuum which the Kassites filled. After the destruction of the [[Mittani]] by the Hittites in the early 14th century BC, Assyria rose in power creating a three-way power structure in the region between the Kassites, Hittites, and Assyrians, with Elam exerting influence from the east and Egypt from the south. A number of the [[Amarna Letters]] are correspondence between the respective rulers (including 14 between the Pharaoh and the Kassite ruler).<ref>Miller, Jared L.. "3. Political Interactions between Kassite Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt and Ḫatti during the Amarna Age". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 93-111</ref> An international system came into place between these parties connected by widespread trade, treaties, and intermarriage between the ruling classes (especially between the Kassites and Elamites).<ref>Schulman, Alan R. “Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 38, no. 3, 1979, pp. 177–93</ref><ref>Roaf, Michael. "6. Kassite and Elamite Kings". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 166-195</ref> A typical treaties include the [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty]] (c.1259 BC) and the treaty between the Kassite ruler Karaindash and the Assyrian ruler Ashur-bel-nisheshu (c. 1410 BC).

At the peak of their power the Kassites, under Kurigalzu I in the mid 14th century BC, conquered Elam and sacked the capital of [[Susa]].<ref>Frans van Koppen (2006). "Inscription of Kurigalzu I". In Mark William Chavalas (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Blackwell Publishing Ltd</ref> That ruler initiated  significant building efforts in Ur and other southern Mesopotamia cities.<ref>Clayden, Tim. "Ur in the Kassite Period". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 88-124</ref> The most notable of these efforts was the construction of a new city, Dur-Kurigalzu. It contained a number of palaces and also temples to many Babylonia gods including Enlil, Ninlil, and Ninurta.<ref>Clayden, Tim. "16. Dūr-Kurigalzu: New Perspectives". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 437-478</ref><ref>Malko, Helen. "17. Dūr-Kurigalzu: Insights from Unpublished Iraqi Excavation Reports". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 479-491</ref> The Kassites also extended their power into the Persian Gulf, including at [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]].<ref>Potts, D. T. “Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 65, no. 2, 2006, pp. 111–19</ref> Being in close proximity the Assyrians and Kassites often came into political and military conflict over the next few centuries. For a time in the early reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I, Assyria gained ascendancy, until the Elamites under Kidin-Hutran III intervened. This period is marked by a building hiatus at Babylon, similar to the one after the fall of the [[First Babylonian dynasty]].<ref>Pedersén, Olof. 2005. "Archive und Bibliotheken in Babylon. Die Tontafeln der Grabung Robert Koldeweys 1899–1917." Saarbrücken: Saarländische Druckerei und Verlag</ref><ref>Sternitzke, Katja. "Babylon in the Second Millennium BCE: New Insights on the Transitions from Old Babylonian to Kassite and Isin II Periods". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 125-145</ref>

===Iron Age===
[[File:Kassite cylinder seal impression, ca. 16th–12th century BC.jpg|thumb|left|Kassite cylinder seal, c. 16th–12th century BC.]]

The [[Elam]]ites of the [[Shutrukid dynasty]] conquered Babylonia, carrying away the [[Statue of Marduk]], in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state.<ref>Potts, Daniel T. (1999). ''The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-563585}}. pp. 233–234</ref> According to the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, which is not considered reliable, the last Kassite king, [[Enlil-nadin-ahi]], was taken to [[Susa]] and imprisoned there in 1155 BC, where he also died.<ref>Albert Kirk Grayson (1975), ''Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles'', Locust Valley, New York: J. J. Augustin, {{ISBN|978-1575060491}}</ref>

The annals of the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] detail that on his second, eastern, campaign of 702 BC he campaigned against the land of the Kassites, that being along the [[Diyala River]] between the Jebel Hamrin and the Darband-i-Khan. The Kassites took refuge in the mountains but were brought down and resettled, in standard Assyrian practice, in Hardispi and Bit Kubatti, which were made part of the Arrapha district.<ref>Levine, Louis D. "The Second Campaign of Sennacherib". ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'', vol. 32, no. 3, 1973, pp. 312–317</ref><ref>Levine, Louis D. "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros—I". ''Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies'' 11.1 (1973): 1–27</ref><ref>Levine, Louis D. "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros—II". ''Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies'' 12.1 (1974): 99–124.</ref>

[[File:Kudurru Melishipak Louvre Sb23 n02.jpg|thumb|Kassite king [[Meli-Shipak II]] on a kudurru land grant presenting his daughter Ḫunnubat-Nanaya to the goddess [[Nanaya]] (pictured enthroned). The eight-pointed star seen above was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside the [[solar symbol|solar disk]] of her brother [[Shamash]] (Sumerian Utu) and the [[crescent|crescent moon]] of her father [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] (Sumerian Nanna) on a [[kudurru|boundary stone]] of Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.<ref group=i name=sb23>''Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya kudurru'', Sb 23, published as MDP X 87, found with Sb 22 during the French excavations at Susa.</ref>]]