Editing Jewish holidays (section)

==General concepts==

===Groupings===
Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays.
* The Hebrew-language term ''Yom Tov'' ({{langx|he|יום טוב}}), sometimes referred to as "festival day", usually refers to the six biblically mandated festival dates on which all [[#work|activities prohibited on Shabbat]] are prohibited, except for some related to food preparation.<ref>''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', Moshe ben Maimon, vol. 1, Jerusalem, 1974, s.v. ''Shevitat Yom-Tov'' 1:1 (Hebrew).</ref> These include the first and seventh days of [[#Pesach—Passover|Passover]] (the [[Feast of Unleavened Bread]] / the Feast of [[Matzot]] – Exodus 23:15, Deuteronomy 16:16), [first day of] [[#Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim|Shavuot]], both days of [[#Rosh Hashanah|Rosh Hashanah]], first day of [[#Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)|Sukkot]], and [first day of] [[#Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah|Shemini Atzeret]]. By extension, outside the [[Land of Israel]], the second-day holidays known under the rubric ''[[#2days|Yom tov sheni shel galuyot]]'' (literally, "Second ''Yom Tov'' of the Diaspora")—including [[Simchat Torah]]—are also included in this grouping. Colloquially, [[#Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement|Yom Kippur]], a biblically mandated date on which even food preparation is prohibited, is often included in this grouping. The tradition of keeping two days of Yom Tov in the diaspora has existed since roughly 300 BCE.
* The English-language term [[High Holy Days]] or High Holidays refers to [[#Rosh Hashanah|Rosh Hashanah]] and [[#Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement|Yom Kippur]] collectively. Its Hebrew analogue, "Days of Awe" ({{langx|he|ימים נוראים}}), is more flexible: it can refer just to those holidays, or to the [[#Aseret Yemei Teshuva—Ten Days of Repentance|Ten Days of Repentance]], or the entire penitential period, starting as early as the beginning of [[Elul]], and (more rarely) ending as late as [[Shemini Atzeret]].
* The term [[Three Pilgrimage Festivals]] ({{langx|he|שלוש רגלים|shalosh rəġalim}} or {{langx|he|חגים}} ''ḥaġim'') refers to [[#Pesach—Passover|Passover]] (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / Feast of [[Matzot]]), [[#Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim|Shavuot]] and [[#Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)|Sukkot]]. Within this grouping, Sukkot normally includes [[#Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah|Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah]].
* ''Ma'agal Hashana'' ({{langx|he|מעגל השנה|maʿgal haš-šānā|link=no}}; "year cycle"), a more general term, is often used – especially in educational settings<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arachim.org/ArticleDetail.asp?ArticleID=197 |lang=he|title=מעגל השנה|website= arachim.org}}</ref><ref>[http://www.yeshivacollege.co.za/girls-high-school/ Kodesh Studies], [[Yeshiva College of South Africa]]</ref><ref>[http://www.chinuch.org/item_detail/Maagal-Hashanah Ma'agal Hashanah], chinuch.org</ref> – to refer to the overall study of the Jewish calendar, outlining the month by month events, with [[mitzvah|mitzvot]] and [[minhag]]im, and philosophical material, that occur over the year.

===Terminology used to describe holidays===
Certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and their nature:

''[[#Shabbat—The Sabbath|Shabbat]]'' ({{langx|he|שבת}}) ([[Ashkenazi]] pron. from [[Yiddish]] ''shabbos''), or Sabbath, is referred to by that name exclusively. Similarly, ''[[#Rosh Chodesh—The New Month|Rosh Chodesh]]'' ({{langx|he|ראש חודש}}) is referred to by that name exclusively.
*{{anchor|yomtov}}''Yom tov'' ({{langx|he|יום טוב}}) (Ashkenazi pron. from Yid. ''yontif'') (''lit.,'' "good day"): See "[[#Groupings|Groupings]]" above.
* ''Moed'' ({{langx|he|מועד}}) ("festive season"), plural ''moadim'' ({{langx|he|מועדים}}), refers to any of the [[Three Pilgrimage Festivals]] of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot. When used in comparison to ''Yom Tov,'' it refers to [[Chol HaMoed]], the intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot.
* ''Ḥag'' or ''chag'' ({{langx|he|חג}}) ("festival"), plural ''chagim'' ({{langx|he|חגים}}), can be used whenever ''yom tov'' or ''moed'' is. It is also used to describe [[#Hanukkah—Festival of Lights|Hanukkah]] and [[#Purim—Festival of Lots|Purim]], as well as ''[[#Yom Ha'atzmaut—Israel Independence Day|Yom Ha'atzmaut]]'' (Israeli Independence Day) and ''[[#Yom Yerushalayim—Jerusalem Day|Yom Yerushalayim]]'' (Jerusalem Day).
* ''Ta'anit'' ({{langx|he|תענית}}), or, less commonly, ''tzom'' ({{langx|he|צום}}), refers to a ''fast''. These terms are generally used to describe the rabbinic fasts, although ''tzom'' is used liturgically to refer to Yom Kippur as well.<ref>See text from the Yom Kippur [[liturgy]] available at [[Unetanneh Tokef#He Judges Us|Unetanneh Tokef (He Judges Us)]].</ref>

==={{anchor|work}}"Work" on Sabbath and biblical holidays===
{{Main article|39 Melakhot}}
The most notable common feature of Shabbat and the biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from the [[39 Melakhot]] on these days.<ref group=Note>This "negative" (refraining) requirement is paired with a positive requirement to honor and enjoy the Sabbath or festival day.  For information on the positive requirements, see [[Shabbat#Rituals|Shabbat: Rituals]] and [[Shabbat#Encouraged activities|Shabbat: Encouraged activities]].</ref> ''Melakha'' is most commonly translated as "work"; perhaps a better translation is "creative-constructive work".  Strictly speaking, melakha is defined in [[halakha]] (Jewish law) by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing the [[Tabernacle]] while the [[Stations of the Exodus|Jews wandered in the desert]]. As understood traditionally and in [[Orthodox Judaism]]:
*On Shabbat and Yom Kippur all melakha is prohibited.
*On a holiday other than Yom Kippur which falls on a weekday, not Shabbat, most melakha is prohibited. Some ''melacha'' related to the preparation of food is permitted.{{refn|group=Note|Carrying items needed for the holiday in a public domain—more technically, [[Melacha#Transferring between domains|transferring items between domains]]—is considered to be a ''melacha'' related to food preparation.<ref>[[Beitza]] 12a and {{cite wikisource |wslink=Translation:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/495 |title=Shulchan Aruch OC 495:1 |postscript=.}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=Note|Burials are also permitted on a yom tov, although not on Shabbat nor Yom Kippur. On the first day of yom tov, burial is prohibited unless the bulk of the associated ''melacha'' is done by non-Jews. On the second day of yom tov, including Rosh Hashanah, burial is permitted even if the bulk of the associated ''melacha'' is done by Jews. In modern times, it is extremely unusual for a yom tov burial to occur, except on the second day of Rosh Hashanah in Jerusalem.<ref>See [[Beitza]] 6a and [[Igrot Moshe]] OC III, 76.</ref> Further details are beyond the scope of this article.}}
*On weekdays during [[Chol HaMoed]], melakha is not prohibited ''per se.'' However, melakha should be limited to that required either to enhance the enjoyment of the remainder of the festival or to avoid great financial loss, or several other categories.
*On other days, there are no restrictions on melakha.<ref group=Note>There is a practice for women to refrain from some types of labor on Rosh Chodesh; see [[Rosh Chodesh#Rosh Chodesh and women|Rosh Chodesh and women]].</ref>

In principle, [[Conservative Judaism]] understands the requirement to refrain from melakha in the same way as Orthodox Judaism. In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around melakha differently from Orthodox authorities.<ref>See, for example, {{Citation|last=Nevins|first=Daniel|title=The Use of Electrical and Electronic Devices on Shabbat|url=http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/2011-2020/electrical-electronic-devices-shabbat.pdf|access-date=October 23, 2012}}, as an illustration both on general concepts and on specific rulings.</ref> Still, there are some Conservative/Masorti communities around the world where Shabbat and festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox observance.<ref group=Note>This is especially, though not exclusively, true outside the US.  For example, Masorti Judaism in Israel and the UK rejects North American Conservatism's position to permit [[Driving on Shabbat#Conservative|driving to synagogue on Shabbat]].</ref>

However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselves [[Shomer Shabbat|Shabbat observant]], even by Conservative standards.<ref>This is widely recognized as true. The best objective source is probably ''Jewish Identity and Religious Commitment: The North American Study of Conservative Synagogues and Their Members, 1995–96,'' edited by [[Jack Wertheimer]], 1997, Ratner Center for the Study of Conservative Judaism. But reliable, updated figures are difficult to come by.</ref>  At the same time, adherents of [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] do not accept traditional halakha, and therefore restrictions on melakha, as binding at all.<ref group=Note>See, for example, [[Reform Judaism#Reform Judaism's Position on Jewish Law|Reform Judaism's Position on Jewish Law]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism#Jewish law and tradition|Reconstructionist Judaism (Jewish Law and Tradition)]], and references in those articles.</ref> Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from melakha in practice only as they see fit.

Shabbat and holiday work restrictions are always put aside in cases of [[pikuach nefesh]], which are actions to save a human life. At the most fundamental level, if there is any possibility whatsoever that action must be taken to save a life, Shabbat restrictions are set aside immediately, and without reservation.<ref group=Note>The Babylonian Talmud (see at ''[[Sotah (Talmud)|Sotah]] 20–21'') describes one who fails to do so as a ''chasid shoteh,'' a foolishly pious individual.</ref>  Where the danger to life is present but less immediate, there is some preference to minimize violation of Shabbat work restrictions where possible. The laws in this area are complex.<ref>[[Yeshiva University|YU]] Torah ''shiurim'' on ''Pikuach Nefesh:'' [http://www.yutorah.org/_shiurim/Pikuach%20Nefesh%20Part%20I.html Part I], [http://www.yutorah.org/_shiurim/Pikuach%20Nefesh%20Part%20II.html Part II], and [http://www.yutorah.org/_shiurim/Pikuach%20Nefesh%20Part%20III.html Part III], accessed July 11, 2013.</ref>

==={{anchor|2days}}Second day of biblical festivals===
{{Main article|Yom tov sheni shel galuyot}}
The Torah specifies a single date on the Jewish calendar for observance of holidays. Nevertheless, festivals of biblical origin other than Shabbat and Yom Kippur are observed for two days outside the [[land of Israel]], and Rosh Hashanah is observed for two days even inside the land of Israel.

Dates for holidays on the Jewish calendar are expressed in the Torah as "day x of month y". Accordingly, the beginning of ''month y'' needs to be determined before the proper date of the holiday on ''day x'' can be fixed. Months in the Jewish calendar are [[lunar month|lunar]], and originally were thought to have been proclaimed by the blowing of a ''[[shofar]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goodenough|first=E.R.|title=Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1968|isbn=978-1-4008-5289-5|location=Princeton, New Jersey|pages=81–115|edition=Abridged}}</ref> Later, the [[Sanhedrin]] received testimony of witnesses saying they saw the new crescent moon.<ref group=Note>Similar practices are still used in [[Islamic calendar|Islam]] as well as in the [[Karaite Judaism#The calendar|Karaite]] and [[Samaritan]] communities.</ref> Then the Sanhedrin would inform Jewish communities away from its meeting place that it had proclaimed a new moon. The practice of observing a second festival day stemmed from delays in disseminating that information.<ref>See, in general, [[Rambam]], ''[[Mishnah Torah]], Kiddush HaChodesh,'' Chapters 3 and 5.</ref>

* ''Rosh Hashanah.'' Because of holiday restrictions on travel, messengers could not even leave the seat of the Sanhedrin until the holiday was over. Inherently, there was no possible way for anyone living away from the seat of the Sanhedrin to receive news of the proclamation of the new month until messengers arrived ''after the fact''. Accordingly, the practice emerged that Rosh Hashanah was observed on both possible days, as calculated from the previous month's start, everywhere in the world.<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 1:3 |wslink=Mishnah/Seder Moed/Tractate Rosh Hashanah/Chapter 1/3}}</ref><ref group=Note>This ''reasoning'' did not directly apply in the actual meeting place of the Sanhedrin, but there are other reasons that the ''practice'' was applied there as well. See Rambam, ''Mishnah Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh'' 5:8.</ref>
* ''Three Pilgrimage Festivals.'' Sukkot and Passover fall on the 15th day of their respective months. This gave messengers two weeks to inform communities about the proclamation of the new month. Normally, they would reach most communities within the land of Israel within that time, but they might fail to reach communities farther away (such as those in Babylonia or overseas). Consequently, the practice developed that these holidays be observed for one day within Israel, but for two days (both possible days as calculated from the previous month's start) outside Israel. This practice is known as ''yom tov sheni shel galuyot'', "second day of festivals in exile communities".<ref>Rambam, ''Mishnah Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh'' 5:9–12.</ref>

:: For Shavuot, calculated as the fiftieth day from Passover, the above issue did not pertain directly, as the "correct" date for Passover would be known by then. Nevertheless, the Talmud applies the same rule to Shavuot, and to the [[Passover#Seventh day of Passover|Seventh Day of Passover]] and Shemini Atzeret, for consistency.<ref>Rambam, ''Mishnah Torah, Kiddush HaChodesh'' 3:12.</ref>

Yom Kippur is not observed for two days anywhere because of the difficulty of maintaining a fast over two days.<ref group=Note>In practice, the Sanhedrin had the discretion to arrange the month proclamations so that Elul would almost never be extended to 30 days. See [[Rosh Hashanah (Talmud)|BT Rosh Hashanah]] 19b, as well as commentators there. This greatly reduced the practical level of doubt as to which day would be the first day of Tishrei. The doubt still existed, so ''Rosh Hashanah'' and ''Sukkot'' were observed for two days.  However, the low level of the doubt–combined with the difficulty of a 49-hour fast–led to the exemption of ''Yom Kippur'' from the requirement for a second day of observance. This complex issue is discussed more fully [http://www.mail-archive.com/daf-discuss@shemayisrael.co.il/msg02556.html here].</ref>

: Shabbat is not observed based on a calendar date, but simply at intervals of seven days. Accordingly, there is never a doubt of the date of Shabbat, and it need never be observed for two days.<ref group=Note>There are differing opinions as to the location of the International Date Line for purposes of Jewish law. Accordingly, some ''halachic'' authorities do have doubts as to which (secular) day of the week should be considered Shabbat in some Pacific islands. See [[International date line in Judaism]] for details.</ref>

Adherents of [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] generally do not observe the second day of festivals,<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Second Festival Day and Reform Judaism (Responsum 5759.7)|journal=CCAR Responsa|year=1999|url=http://ccarnet.org/responsa/nyp-no-5759-7/|access-date=July 15, 2013}}. See in particular footnotes 1 and 2 to the responsum.</ref> although some do observe two days of Rosh Hashanah.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rosh Hashanah: Customs|url=http://www.reformjudaism.org/rosh-hashanah-customs|work=ReformJudaism.org|publisher=Union for Reform Judaism|access-date=July 14, 2013}}</ref>