Editing Jerusalem (section)

==Etymology and names==
{{further|Names of Jerusalem}}

===Etymology===
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic ''yry''' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god [[Shalim|Shalem]]";<ref>Meir Ben-Dov, ''Historical Atlas of Jerusalem'', Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002, p. 23.</ref><ref name=Binz>{{cite book |title=Jerusalem, the Holy City |last=Binz |first=Stephen J. |year=2005 |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |location=Connecticut |isbn=978-1-58595-365-3 |page=2 |url={{Google books |id=7zLuDlzdTFYC |page=1 |plainurl=yes}} |access-date=17 December 2011}}</ref> the god Shalem was thus the original [[tutelary deity]] of the Bronze Age city.<ref>G. Johannes Bottereck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry, (eds.) ''Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament'', tr. David E. Green, vol. XV, pp. 48–49 William B. Eeerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge UK 2006, pp. 45–46</ref>

Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the [[Canaanite religion]], whose name is based on the same root [[S-L-M]] from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (''Shalom'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], cognate with [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] ''Salam'').<ref>{{cite book |title=Jerusalem |last=Elon |first=Amos |url=http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh362/TelAvivandJerusalem.HTM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030310223636/http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh362/TelAvivandJerusalem.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 March 2003 |isbn=978-0-00-637531-9 |access-date=26 April 2007 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers Ltd |quote=The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem–Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic). |year=1996}}</ref><ref>Ringgren, H., ''Die Religionen des Alten Orients'' (Göttingen, 1979), 212.</ref> The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace",<ref name=Binz/><ref name=Hastings>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume II: (Part II: I—Kinsman), Volume 2 |last=Hastings |first=James |author-link=James Hastings |year=2004 |publisher=Reprinted from 1898 edition by University Press of the Pacific |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-1-4102-1725-7 |page=584 |url={{Google books |id=0wvtFPz03GsC |page=584 |plainurl=yes}} |access-date=17 December 2011}}</ref> "Abode of Peace",<ref name=Bosworth>{{cite book |title=Historic cities of the Islamic world |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |year=2007 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |location=The Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-15388-2 |pages=225–226 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA226 |access-date=17 December 2011 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083731/https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA226 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=DeGarmo>{{cite web |url=http://centre4conflictstudies.org/wanderingthoughts/category/denise-degarmo/ |title=Abode of Peace? |author=Denise DeGarmo |date=9 September 2011 |work=Wandering Thoughts |publisher=Center for Conflict Studies |access-date=17 December 2011 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426042313/http://centre4conflictstudies.org/wanderingthoughts/category/denise-degarmo/ |archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref> "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"),<ref>Marten H. Wouldstra, ''The Book of Joshua'', William B. Eerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan (1981) 1995, p. 169 n.2</ref> or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.<ref name=Harrison>{{cite book |title=Millennium: a Latin reader, A |last=Bosworth |first=Francis Edward |year=1968 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |asin=B0000CO4LE |page=183 |url={{Google books |id=5sC2pJYlzbsC |page=183 |plainurl=yes}} |access-date=17 December 2011}}</ref>

The ending ''-ayim'' indicates the [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]], thus leading to the suggestion that the name ''Yerushalayim'' refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-0-405-10298-1 |last=Wallace |first=Edwin Sherman |title=Jerusalem the Holy |date=August 1977 |page=16 |quote=A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word |publisher=Arno Press |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924083674295 |last=Smith |first=George Adam |year=1907 |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924083674295/page/n298 251] |quote=The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities |isbn=978-0-7905-2935-6}} (see {{Google books |id=Nf4QAAAAIAAJ |page=251 |title=Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70, Volume 1}})</ref>

===Ancient Egyptian sources===
The [[Execration Texts]] of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called ''rwšꜣlmm'' or ''[[wikt:ꜣwšꜣmm|ꜣwšꜣmm]]'', variously transcribed as ''Rušalimum'', or ''Urušalimum'',<ref>Sethe, Kurt (1926) "Die Ächtung feindlicher Fürsten, Völker und Dinge auf altägyptischen Tongefäßscherben des Mittleren Reiches nach den Originalen im Berliner Museum herausgegeben und erklärt" in ''Abhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften'', 1926 issue, philosophisch-historische Klasse, number 5, page 53</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period |last=Hoch |first=James E |year=1994 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton}}</ref> may indicate Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |author1=David Noel Freedman |author2=Allen C. Myers |author3=Astrid B. Beck |title=Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |access-date=19 August 2010 |year=2000 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4 |pages=694–95 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083747/https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) ''Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament'', (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348</ref> Alternatively, the [[Amarna letters]] of [[Abdi-Heba]] (1330s BCE), which reference an ''Úrušalim'', may be the earliest mention of the city.<ref name=vaughn>{{Cite book |title=Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period |author1=Vaughn, Andrew G. |author2=Ann E. Killebrew |date=1 August 2003 |contribution=Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C |isbn=978-1-58983-066-0 |pages=32–33 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |location=Atlanta |access-date=10 May 2016 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701140948/https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_2.html |publisher=Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies |title=History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David |work=Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City |access-date=18 January 2007 |last=Shalem |first=Yisrael |date=3 March 1997 |archive-date=17 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117203409/http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_2.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/EA263-end.html |title=The El Amarna Letters from Canaan |publisher=TAU.ac.il |access-date=11 September 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214052256/http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/EA263-end.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources===
The form ''Yerushalem'' or ''Yerushalayim'' first appears in the Bible, in the [[Book of Joshua]]. According to a [[Midrash]], the name is a combination of two names united by God, ''Yireh'' ("the abiding place", the name given by [[Abraham]] to the place where [[Binding of Isaac|he planned to sacrifice his son]]) and ''[[Salem (Bible)|Shalem]]'' ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest [[Shem]]).<ref>Ginzberg, Louis (1909). ''[[Legends of the Jews|The Legends of the Jews]] [http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf Volume I: The Akedah] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313050820/http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends |date=13 March 2020 }}'' (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.</ref>

===Oldest written mention of ''Jerusalem''===
One of the earliest extra-biblical [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] writing of the word ''Jerusalem'' is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE<ref>''Writing, Literacy, and Textual Transmission: The Production of Literary'' by Jessica N. Whisenant p. 323</ref><ref>''King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities'' by Francesca Stavrakopoulou p. 98</ref> and was discovered in [[Khirbet Beit Lei]] near [[Beit Guvrin, Israel|Beit Guvrin]] in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",<ref>''Oral World and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature'' by Susan Niditch p. 48</ref><ref>''The Mountain of the Lord'' by Benyamin Mazar p. 60</ref><ref>''Blessing and Curse in Syro-Palestinian Inscriptions'' by T. G Crawford p. 137</ref> or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".<ref name=Naveh2001>{{cite journal |author=Joseph Naveh |title=Hebrew Graffiti from the First Temple Period |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |volume=51 |number=2 |year=2001 |pages=194–207}}</ref><ref>''Discovering the World of the Bible'' by LaMar C. Berrett p. 178</ref> An earlier example of the name appears in a papyrus from the 7th century BCE.<ref>Ahituv, S., Klein, E. and Ganor, A. 2016. To Jerusalem: A Seventh Century BCE Shipping 
Certificate. In: Stiebel, G.D., Uziel, J., Citryn-Silverman, K., Re’em, A. and Gadot, Y., 
eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region 10: 239–251 (In Hebrew)</ref><ref name=Baruch>{{cite journal |title=The Name Jerusalem in a Late Second Temple Period Jewish Inscription |author=Baruch, Yuval |author2=Levi, Danit |author3=[[Ronny Reich|Reich, Ronny]] |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=108–18 |year=2020 |doi=10.1080/03344355.2020.1707452 |s2cid=219879544}}</ref>
[[File:Khirbet_Beit_Lei_inscription_A_close_up.jpg|thumb|Close up of the [[Khirbet Beit Lei graffiti|Khirbet Beit Lei inscription]], showing the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word ''Jerusalem'', dated to the seventh or sixth century BCE]]
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the ''-ayim'' ending was discovered on a column about 3&nbsp;km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.<ref name=Baruch/>

===Jebus, Zion, City of David===
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the [[Bronze Age]] on the hill above the [[Gihon Spring]], was, according to the Bible, named [[Jebusite|Jebus]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Judges|19:10}}: יְב֔וּס הִ֖יא יְרוּשָׁלִָ֑ם: "Jebus, it [is] Jerusalem"</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/kjv/kjv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1012257 |title=Bible, King James Version |work=umich.edu |access-date=12 February 2016 |archive-date=11 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211102731/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/kjv/kjv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1012257 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Gagrinp113>{{Google books |id=lNV6-HsUppsC |page=113 |title=The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1}}, p. 113</ref> Called the "Fortress of Zion" (''metsudat Zion''), it was renamed as the "City of David",<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Samuel 5:7,9|multi=yes}}. Cited in {{cite book |author1=[[Israel Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Israel]] |author2=[[Amihai Mazar|Mazar, Amihai]] |editor=Brian B. Schmidt |title=The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel |page=127 |date=2007 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-277-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&pg=PA177 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=6 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706081119/https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&pg=PA177 |url-status=live}}</ref> and was known by this name in antiquity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bar-Kochva |first=Bezalel |year=2002 |title=Judas Maccabeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids |page=447 |url={{Google books |id=SIKuW_bl6LAC |page=447 |plainurl=yes}} |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01683-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mazar |first=Eilat |title=The Complete Guide to the Temple Mount Excavations |year=2002 |publisher=Shoham Academic Research and Publication |location=Jerusalem |isbn=978-965-90299-1-4 |page=1}}</ref> Another name, "[[Zion]]", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical [[Land of Israel]].

===Greek, Roman and Byzantine names===
In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated ''Hierosolyma/Hierosoluma'' (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek ''hieròs'', ''ἱερός'', means holy), and was the term used by [[Matthew the Apostle|Matthew]] and [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] in their [[gospel]]s instead of the Hebrew term.<ref name="Hierosolyma">{{cite journal |last1=Brenk |first1=Frederick E. |title="Hierosolyma". The Greek Name of Jerusalem |journal=Glotta |date=2011 |volume=87 |issue=1–4 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.13109/glot.2011.87.14.1 |jstor=41416798 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41416798 |access-date=7 November 2024 |issn=0017-1298}}</ref>

Up until the 2010s the consensus among [[historian]]s was that following [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest, Hierosoluma was set to be incorporated into the larger temple cities of the [[Seleucid kingdom]], and to be [[Hellenized]] as ''Hierapolis.''<ref name="Hierosolyma"/> However, modern historians dispute this as a proper Ancient Greek translation for the [[polis]] would be similar to ''Hierolophos''.<ref name="Hierosolyma"/>

The city was renamed [[Aelia Capitolina]] for part of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period of its history.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

===Salem===
The [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Genesis Apocryphon|Apocryphon of Genesis]] of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of [[Melchizedek]] in Genesis 14.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|14:18}}</ref> Other early Hebrew sources,<ref>For example:
* [[Book of Jubilees]] [https://archive.org/details/bookofjubileesor00char/page/178/mode/1up 30:1].
** (See: [https://archive.org/details/bookofjubileesor00char/page/n7/mode/2up The text translated] by R.H. Charles, with introduction and notes{{snd}}{{cite book |last1=Charles |first1=R. H. |title=The book of Jubilees, or The little Genesis |date=1902 |publisher=A. & C. Black |location=London |author-mask=0 |at=[https://archive.org/details/bookofjubileesor00char/page/178/mode/1up p. 178: Chapter 30, verse 1]  |url=https://archive.org/details/bookofjubileesor00char/page/n7/mode/2up}}
* the [[Septuagint]] version of {{bibleverse|Jer|48:5}} (as Συχὲμ  {{grc-transl|Συχὲμ}})
* and possibly the Masoretic text of {{bibleverse|Genesis|33:18}} (''see'' KJV and the margin translation of the Revised Version).</ref> early Christian renderings of the verse<ref>''E.g.'', the [[Vulgate]] and [[Peshitta]] versions. J.A. Emerton, "The site of Salem: the City of Melchizedek ({{bibleverse|Genesis|xiv 18}})," pp. 45–72 of ''Studies in the Pentateuch'' ed. by J.A. Emerton, vol. 41 of ''Supplements to Vetus Testamentum'' (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990) ("Emerton"), p. 45. ''See also'' {{bibleverse|John|3:23}} where "Salim" or "Sylem" (Συχὲμ) is said to be near [[Ænon]], thought to be in the valley of [[Mount Ebal]], one of two mountains in the vicinity of Nablus.</ref> and ''[[targumim]]'',<ref>[[Targum Onkelos|Onklelos]], [[Pseudo-Jonathan]] and [[Targum Neofiti|Neofiti I]]. Emerton, p. 45.</ref> however, put Salem in Northern Israel near [[Shechem]] (Sichem), now [[Nablus]], a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:6–7}} (where Abram built an altar), {{bibleverse|Genesis 33:18–20, Deuteronomy 11:29 & 28:11, Joshua 8:33, 1 Kings 12|multi=yes}}. Emerton, p. 63.</ref> Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the [[Samaritans]].<ref>Paul Winter, "Note on Salem—Jerusalem", ''Novum Testamentum'', vol. 2, pp. 151–152 (1957).</ref> However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.templestudiesgroup.com/Papers/Robert_Hayward.pdf |last=Raymond Hayward |title=Melchizedek as Priest of the Jerusalem Temple in Talmud, Midrash, and Targum |publisher=The Temple Studies Group |access-date=24 January 2015 |archive-date=3 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233953/http://www.templestudiesgroup.com/Papers/Robert_Hayward.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Arabic names===
{{redirect|Al-Quds}}
Originally titled Bayt al-Maqdis, today, Jerusalem is most commonly known in [[Arabic]] as {{lang|ar|القُدس}}, transliterated as ''al-Quds'' and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary",<ref name=Bosworth/><ref name=DeGarmo/> cognate with {{langx|he|הקדש|ha-qodesh}}. The name is possibly a shortened form of {{lang|ar|مدينة القُدس}} ''Madīnat al-Quds'' "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, ''Ir ha-Qodesh'' ({{lang|he|עיר הקדש}}). The {{lang|ar|ق}} (Q) is pronounced either with a [[voiceless uvular plosive]] (/q/), as in [[Classical Arabic]], or with a [[glottal stop]] (ʔ) as in [[Levantine Arabic]].<ref name=Elihay2011>{{Cite book |last=Elihay |first=Yohanan |title=Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic |date=2011 |publisher=Minerva |others=Rothberg International School |isbn=978-965-7397-30-5 |edition=[2009 ed.], reprinted with corr. 2011 |location=Jerusalem |oclc=783142368 |page=36 |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/783142368}}</ref> Official Israeli government policy mandates that {{lang|ar|أُورُشَلِيمَ}}, transliterated as ''Ūrušalīm'', which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: ﻳﺸﻮﻉ 10:1 - Ketab El Hayat |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=%EF%BB%B3%EF%BA%B8%EF%BB%AE%EF%BB%89%2010%3A1&version=NAV |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229075025/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=%EF%BB%B3%EF%BA%B8%EF%BB%AE%EF%BB%89%2010:1&version=NAV |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.bible.com/ar/bible/67/ACT.1.12.%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D8%25B4%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B1%25D9%2583%25D8%25A9 |title=أعمال الرسل 12:1 فرَجَعَ الرّسُلُ إلى أُورُشليمَ مِنَ الجبَلِ الذي يُقالُ لَه جبَلُ الزّيتونِ، وهوَ قَريبٌ مِنْ أُورُشليمَ على مَسيرةِ سَبتٍ مِنها. {{!}} الترجمة العربية المشتركة (المشتركة) {{!}} Download The Bible App Now |language=ar |access-date=29 December 2023 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229075025/https://www.bible.com/ar/bible/67/ACT.1.12.%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D8%25B4%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B1%25D9%2583%25D8%25A9 |url-status=live }}</ref> be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with {{lang|ar|القُدس}}, giving {{lang|ar|أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس}}, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=3 |title=The Official Website of Jerusalem |date=19 September 2011 |publisher=Municipality of Jerusalem |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070427222723/http://www.hotzvim.org.il/SiteFiles/1/35/901.asp |archive-date=27 April 2007}}</ref> Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "''Qudsi''" ({{Lang|ar|قُدسي}}) or "''Maqdasi''" ({{Lang|ar|مقدسي}}), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a [[demonym]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sonbol |first1=Amira |title=Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History |date=1996 |page=133}}</ref>