Editing Irving Langmuir (section)

==Biography==

===Early years===
Irving Langmuir was born in [[Brooklyn]], New York, on January 31, 1881. He was the third of the four children of Charles Langmuir and Sadie, {{née}} Comings. During his childhood, Langmuir's parents encouraged him to carefully observe nature and to keep a detailed record of his various observations. When Irving was eleven, it was discovered that he had poor eyesight.<ref>{{citation |title=Langmuir – The man and the scientist. Collected Works of Irving Langmuir |editor-first=C. Guy. |editor-last=Suits |publisher=Pergamon Press |volume=12 |year=1962 |asin=B0007EIFMO}} ASIN states author is Albert Rosenfeld; does not name an editor or state a volume.</ref> When this problem was corrected, details that had previously eluded him were revealed, and his interest in the complications of nature was heightened.<ref>{{citation|title=Irving Langmuir – A Pioneering Industrial Physical Chemist |last=Rajvanshi |first=Anil K. |author-link=Anil K. Rajvanshi |journal=Resonance |volume=13|number=7 |pages=619–626 |date=July 2008 |url=https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/013/07/0619-0626|doi=10.1007/s12045-008-0068-z|s2cid=124517477 }}</ref>

During his childhood, Langmuir was influenced by his older brother, Arthur Langmuir. Arthur was a research chemist who encouraged Irving to be curious about nature and how things work. Arthur helped Irving set up his first chemistry lab in the corner of his bedroom, and he was content to answer the myriad questions that Irving would pose. Langmuir's [[hobby|hobbies]] included [[mountaineering]], [[skiing]], [[pilot (aircraft)|piloting]] his own plane, and [[classical music]].<!--listening to or playing it?--> In addition to his professional interest in the politics of atomic energy, he was concerned about wilderness conservation.

===Education===
[[File:Langmuir-sitting.jpg|thumb|Langmuir c. 1900]]
Langmuir attended several schools and institutes in America and Paris (1892–1895) before graduating high school from [[Chestnut Hill Academy]] (1898), an elite private school located in the affluent [[Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia|Chestnut Hill]] area in Philadelphia. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in [[metallurgical engineering]] ([[Metallurgy|Met.E.]]) from the [[Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science|Columbia University School of Mines]] in 1903. He earned his PhD in 1906 under {{Ill|Friedrich Dolezalek|de|Friedrich Dolezalek (Chemiker)}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Langmuir, Irving, 1881-1957 |url=https://history.aip.org/phn/11802004.html |access-date=2024-03-24 |website=history.aip.org}}</ref> in [[Göttingen]], for research done using the "[[Nernst glower]]", an electric lamp invented by Nernst. His doctoral thesis was entitled "On the Partial Recombination of Dissolved Gases During Cooling" ({{Langx|de|Ueber partielle Wiedervereinigung dissociierter Gase im Verlauf einer Abkühlung}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Suits |first1=C. Guy |last2=Martin |first2=Miles J. |date=1974 |title=Irving Langmuir 1881—1957 |url=https://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/langmuir-irving.pdf |journal=National Academy of Sciences}}</ref> He later did postgraduate work in chemistry. Langmuir then taught at [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], until 1909, when he began working at the [[General Electric]] research laboratory ([[Schenectady, New York]]).

===Research===
[[Image:Irving Langmuir and Guglielmo Marconi in lab.jpg|thumb|Langmuir ''(center)'' in 1922 in his lab at GE, showing radio pioneer [[Guglielmo Marconi]] ''(right)'' a new 20 kW triode tube]] 
[[Image:General electric pliotron pp schenectady 3.jpg|thumb|right|General Electric Company Pliotron]]

His initial contributions to science came from his study of light bulbs (a continuation of his PhD work). His first major development was the improvement of the [[diffusion pump]], which ultimately led to the invention of the high-vacuum rectifier and amplifier tubes. A year later, he and colleague [[Lewi Tonks]] discovered that the lifetime of a [[tungsten]] filament could be greatly lengthened by filling the bulb with an [[inert gas]], such as [[argon]], the critical factor (overlooked by other researchers) being the need for extreme cleanliness in all stages of the process. He also discovered that twisting the filament into a tight coil improved its efficiency. These were important developments in the history of the [[incandescent light bulb]]. His work in surface chemistry began at this point, when he discovered that molecular hydrogen introduced into a tungsten-filament bulb dissociated into atomic hydrogen and formed a layer one atom thick on the surface of the bulb.<ref>{{harvnb|Coffey|2008|pp=64–70}}</ref>

His assistant in vacuum tube research was his cousin [[William Comings White]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/MPER.2002.989191|title=Irving Langmuir and the origins of electronics|year=2002|last1=Anderson|first1=J. M.|journal=IEEE Power Engineering Review|volume=22|issue=3|pages=38–39 }}</ref>

As he continued to study filaments in vacuum and different gas environments, he began to study the emission of charged particles from hot filaments ([[thermionic emission]]). He was one of the first scientists to work with [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]s, and he was the first to call these ionized gases by that name because they reminded him of [[blood plasma]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Harold M.|last=Mott-Smith |journal=Nature |volume=233 |issue=5316 |page=219 |year=1971 |title=History of "plasmas" |url=https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v233/n5316/pdf/233219a0.pdf|bibcode=1971Natur.233..219M |doi=10.1038/233219a0 |pmid=16063290 |s2cid=4259549 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Lewi |last=Tonks |title=The birth of "plasma" |year=1967 |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=857–858 |doi=10.1119/1.1974266|bibcode=1967AmJPh..35..857T }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Brown, Sanborn C.|chapter=Chapter 1: A Short History of Gaseous Electronics|editor-last1=Hirsh |editor-first1=Merle N. |editor-last2=Oskam |editor-first2=H. J. |title=Gaseous Electronics|volume=1|publisher=Academic Press|date=1978|isbn=978-0-12-349701-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1UmeQ_E0_AC&q=blood&pg=PA1}}</ref> Langmuir and Tonks discovered electron density waves in plasmas that are now known as [[Langmuir wave]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~mem4/ap6101/Tonks_Langmuir_PR29.pdf |journal=Physical Review |year=1929 |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=195–210 |title=Oscillations in ionized gases |first1=Lewi |last1=Tonks |first2=Irving |last2=Langmuir|bibcode=1929PhRv...33..195T |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.33.195 |pmid=16587379 |pmc=1085653 }}</ref>

He introduced the concept of [[Plasma (physics)#Temperature|electron temperature]] and in 1924 invented the diagnostic method for measuring both temperature and [[Plasma (physics)#Degree of ionization|density]] with an electrostatic probe, now called a [[Langmuir probe]] and commonly used in plasma physics. The current of a biased probe tip is measured as a function of bias voltage to determine the local plasma temperature and density. He also discovered atomic [[hydrogen]], which he put to use by inventing the [[atomic hydrogen welding]] process; the first plasma weld ever made. Plasma welding has since been developed into [[gas tungsten arc welding]].

In 1917, he published a paper on the chemistry of oil films<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Constitution and Fundamental Properties of Solids and Liquids: II. Liquids |doi=10.1021/ja02254a006 |date=September 1917 |last1=Langmuir |first1=Irving |author1-link=Irving Langmuir |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=39 |issue=9 |pages=1848–1906|bibcode=1917JAChS..39.1848L |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1429064 }}</ref> that later became the basis for the award of the 1932 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Langmuir theorized that oils consisting of an [[aliphatic]] chain with a [[hydrophilic]] end group (perhaps an [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] or [[acid]]) were oriented as a film one molecule thick upon the surface of water, with the hydrophilic group down in the water and the [[hydrophobic]] chains clumped together on the surface. The thickness of the film could be easily determined from the known volume and area of the oil, which allowed investigation of the molecular configuration before [[spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] techniques were available.<ref>{{harvnb|Coffey|2008|pp=128–131}}</ref>

===Later years===
Following [[World War I]] Langmuir contributed to atomic theory and the understanding of atomic structure by defining the modern concept of [[valence shell]]s and [[isotope]]s.

Langmuir was president of the [[Institute of Radio Engineers]] in 1923.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Irving_Langmuir |title=Irving Langmuir |work=IEEE Global History Network |publisher=IEEE |access-date=August 9, 2011}}</ref>

Based on his work at General Electric, [[John Bradshaw Taylor|John B. Taylor]] developed a detector ionizing beams of alkali metals,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Taylor|first=John|title=The Reflection of Beams of the Alkali Metals from Crystals|journal=Physical Review|year=1930|volume=35|issue=4|pages=375–380|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.35.375|bibcode = 1930PhRv...35..375T }}</ref> called nowadays the [[Langmuir-Taylor detector]]. In 1927, he was one of the participants of the fifth [[Solvay Conference]] on Physics that took place at the International Solvay Institute for Physics in Belgium.

He joined [[Katharine B. Blodgett]] to study thin films and surface adsorption. They introduced the concept of a [[monolayer]] (a layer of material one molecule thick) and the two-dimensional physics which describe such a surface. In 1932 he received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] "for his discoveries and investigations in [[surface chemistry]]."
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Langmuirtime.jpeg|thumb|''[[Time Magazine]]'', 28 August 1950]] -->
In 1938, Langmuir's scientific interests began to turn to [[atmospheric science]] and [[meteorology]]. One of his first ventures, although tangentially related, was a refutation of the claim of entomologist [[Charles Henry Tyler Townsend|Charles H. T. Townsend]] that the [[deer botfly]] flew at speeds of over 800 miles per hour. Langmuir estimated the fly's speed at 25 miles per hour.

After observing [[windrow]]s of drifting seaweed in the [[Sargasso Sea]] he discovered a wind-driven surface circulation in the sea. It is now called the [[Langmuir circulation]].

[[Image:Irving Langmuir House 2008.jpg|thumb|right|Langmuir's house in Schenectady]]

During [[World War II]], Langmuir and Research Associate [[Vincent Schaefer|Vincent J Schaefer]] worked on improving naval [[sonar]] for submarine detection, and later to develop protective smoke screens and methods for [[deicing]] aircraft wings. This research led him to theorize and then demonstrate in the laboratory and in the atmosphere, that the introduction of ice nuclei [[dry ice]] and [[silver iodide]] into a sufficiently moist cloud of low temperature ([[supercooled water]]) could induce precipitation ([[cloud seeding]]); though in frequent practice, particularly in Australia and the People's Republic of China, the efficiency of this technique remains controversial today.

In 1953 Langmuir coined the term "[[pathological science]]", describing research conducted with accordance to the [[scientific method]], but tainted by unconscious bias or subjective effects. This is in contrast to [[pseudoscience]], which has no pretense of following the scientific method. In his original speech, he presented [[Extra-sensory perception|ESP]] and [[flying saucers]] as examples of pathological science; since then, the label has been applied to [[polywater]] and [[cold fusion]].

[[Irving Langmuir House|His house]] in Schenectady, was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1976.

===Personal life===
Langmuir was married to Marion Mersereau (1883–1971) in 1912 with whom he adopted two children: Kenneth and Barbara. After a short illness, he died in [[Woods Hole, Massachusetts]] from a heart attack on August 16, 1957. His obituary ran on the front page of ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref>{{cite news | author=Staff writers | title=Dr. Irving Langmuir Dies at 76; Winner of Nobel Chemistry Prize | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1957/08/17/archives/dr-irving-langmuir-dies-at-76-winner-of-nobel-chemistry-prize.html | work=The New York Times | date=August 17, 1957 | access-date=October 20, 2008}}</ref>

On his religious views, Langmuir was an agnostic.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Quintessence of Irving Langmuir|year=1961|publisher=Pergamon Press|page=150|author=Albert Rosenfeld|quote=Though Marion herself was not an assiduous churchgoer and had no serious objection to Irving's agnostic views, her grandfather had been an Episcopalian clergyman.}}</ref>

===In fiction===
According to author [[Kurt Vonnegut]], Langmuir was the inspiration for his fictional scientist Dr. Felix Hoenikker in the novel ''[[Cat's Cradle]]'',<ref name="The Nation">{{cite journal|last=Musil|first=Robert K.|date=August 2, 1980|title=There Must Be More to Love Than Death: A Conversation With Kurt Vonnegut|journal=The Nation|volume= 231|issue= 4|pages=128–132|issn=0027-8378}}</ref> and the character's invention of [[ice-nine]], a new phase of water ice (similar in name only to [[Ice IX]]). Langmuir had worked with Vonnegut's brother, [[Bernard Vonnegut]] at General Electric on seeding ice crystals to diminish or increase rain or storms.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/27/nyregion/bernard-vonnegut-82-physicist-who-coaxed-rain-from-the-sky.html Bernard Vonnegut, 82, Physicist Who Coaxed Rain From the Sky], NY Times, April 27, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal=Cosmos | url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/chemistry/the-genius-who-ended-up-in-a-kurt-vonnegut-novel/ | author=Jeff Glorfeld | date=June 9, 2019 | title=The genius who ended up in a Vonnegut novel | access-date=October 19, 2020 | archive-date=October 23, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023015447/https://cosmosmagazine.com/chemistry/the-genius-who-ended-up-in-a-kurt-vonnegut-novel/ | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal = The Atlantic | title= The Chemist Who Thought He Could Harness Hurricanes. Irving Langmuir's ill-fated attempts at seeding hurricane King showed just how difficult it is to control the weather|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/09/weather-wars-cloud-seeding/538392/ |author= Sam Kean |date=September 5, 2017}}</ref>