Editing Indigenous peoples in Brazil (section)

==History==

===Origins===
[[File:Parque Indígena do Xingu.jpg|thumb|right|[[Xingu peoples|Xingu]], an [[Indigenous territory (Brazil)|Indigenous territory of Brazil]]]]
Questions about the original [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|settlement of the Americas]] have led to various hypothetical models. The origins of these Indigenous peoples remain a matter of debate among [[Archaeology|archaeologists]].<ref name="AshRobinson2011">{{cite book|author1=Patricia J. Ash|author2=David J. Robinson|title=The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUlSYsyC-NQC&pg=PT289|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-96424-7|page=289}}</ref>

====Migration into the continents====
[[Anthropology|Anthropological]] and [[Genetics|genetic]] evidence suggests that most Amerindian people descended from migrants from [[Siberia]] and [[Mongolia]] who entered the Americas across the [[Bering Strait]] and along the western coast of North America in at least three separate waves. In Brazil, most native tribes living in the land by 1500 are thought to be descended from the first wave of Siberian migrants, who are believed to have crossed the [[Bering Land Bridge]] at the end of the last Ice Age, between 13,000 and 17,000 years ago. This initial migration would have taken some time to reach present-day Brazil, likely entering the [[Amazon River]] basin from the Northwest. The second and third migratory waves from Siberia, which are thought to have led to the [[Athabaskan]], [[Aleut peoples|Aleut]], [[Inuit]], and [[Yupik peoples|Yupik people]], apparently did not reach farther than the southern [[United States]] and [[Canada]], respectively.<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{cite book|author1=Linda S. Cordell|author2=Kent Lightfoot|author3=Francis McManamon|author4=George Milner|title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=RA3-PA249|volume=4|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-02189-3|page=3}}</ref>

====Genetic studies====
{{Further| Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
[[File:Indios apiaka no rio Arinos.jpg|thumb|[[Apiacá people]], painted by [[Hércules Florence]], 1827]]

===== Y-chromosome DNA =====
An analysis of [[Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]] [[Y-chromosome DNA]] reveals specific clustering within much of the South American population. The [[Microsatellite (genetics)|micro-satellite]] diversity and distributions of Y-chromosome lineages specific to South America suggest that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.<ref name=subclades>{{cite web
 |url=http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1
 |title=Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q
 |publisher=Genebase Systems
 |year=2009
 |access-date=17 December 2010
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510204204/http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc%3D.jpg?download=1
 |archive-date=10 May 2011
}}</ref>

===== Autosomal DNA =====
According to a 2012 [[autosomal DNA]] genetic study,<ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal|title=Reconstructing Native American population history| volume=488|issue=7411|doi=10.1038/nature11258|journal=Nature|pages=370–374|pmc=3615710|bibcode=2012Natur.488..370R|pmid=22801491|year=2012 | last1 = Reich | first1 = D | last2 = Patterson | first2 = N | last3 = Campbell | first3 = D | last4 = Tandon | first4 = A | last5 = Mazieres | first5 = S | last6 = Ray | first6 = N | last7 = Parra | first7 = MV | last8 = Rojas | first8 = W | last9 = Duque | first9 = C }}</ref> Native Americans descend from at least three main migrant waves from Siberia. Most of their ancestry traces back to a single ancestral population, referred to as the 'First Americans'. However, [[Inuit languages|Inuit-speaking]] populations from the [[Arctic]] inherited nearly half of their ancestry from a second Siberian migrant wave, while [[Na-dene]] speakers inherited about one-tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settlement of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southward along the coast, with limited gene flow later, especially in [[South America]]. An exception to this is the [[Chibcha]] speakers, whose ancestry includes contributions from both North and South America.<ref name="nature.com"/>

===== mtDNA =====
[[File:Menina da etnia Terena.jpg|thumb|[[Terena people|Terena]] girl at the closing ceremony of the Indigenous Peoples Games]]
Another study, focused on mitochondrial DNA ([[mtDNA]]), which is inherited only through the maternal line,<ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal |last1=Tamm |first1=Erika |last2=Kivisild |first2=Toomas |last3=Reidla |first3=Maere |last4=Metspalu |first4=Mait |last5=Smith |first5=David Glenn |last6=Mulligan |first6=Connie J. |last7=Bravi |first7=Claudio M. |last8=Rickards |first8=Olga |last9=Martinez-Labarga |first9=Cristina |last10=Khusnutdinova |first10=Elsa K. |last11=Fedorova |first11=Sardana A. |last12=Golubenko |first12=Maria V. |last13=Stepanov |first13=Vadim A. |last14=Gubina |first14=Marina A. |last15=Zhadanov |first15=Sergey I. |last16=Ossipova |first16=Ludmila P. |last17=Damba |first17=Larisa |last18=Voevoda |first18=Mikhail I. |last19=Dipierri |first19=Jose E. |last20=Villems |first20=Richard |last21=Malhi |first21=Ripan S. |last22=Carter |first22=Dee |title=Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders |journal=PLOS ONE|date=5 September 2007 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=e829 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000829 |pmid=17786201 |pmc=1952074 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..829T|doi-access=free }}</ref> revealed that the maternal ancestry of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas traces back to a few founding lineages from Siberia, likely arriving via the [[Bering Strait]]. According to this study, the ancestors of Native Americans likely remained near the [[Bering Strait]] for a time before rapidly spreading throughout the Americas and eventually reaching  [[South America]]. A 2016 study on mtDNA lineages found that "a small population entered the Americas via a coastal route around 16,000 years ago, following a period of isolation in eastern [[Beringia]] for approximately 2,400 to 9,000 years after separating from eastern Siberian populations. After spreading rapidly throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a distinct [[phylogeographic]] structure of populations, which persisted over time. All ancient [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mitochondrial lineages]] detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, suggesting a high extinction rate. To investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a substantial loss of pre-Columbian lineages."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Llamas |first1=Bastien |last2=Fehren-Schmitz |first2=Lars |last3=Valverde |first3=Guido |last4=Soubrier |first4=Julien |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Rohland |first6=Nadin |last7=Nordenfelt |first7=Susanne |last8=Valdiosera |first8=Cristina |last9=Richards |first9=Stephen M. |last10=Rohrlach |first10=Adam |last11=Romero |first11=Maria Inés Barreto |last12=Espinoza |first12=Isabel Flores |last13=Cagigao |first13=Elsa Tomasto |last14=Jiménez |first14=Lucía Watson |last15=Makowski |first15=Krzysztof |last16=Reyna |first16=Ilán Santiago Leboreiro |last17=Lory |first17=Josefina Mansilla |last18=Torrez |first18=Julio Alejandro Ballivián |last19=Rivera |first19=Mario A. |last20=Burger |first20=Richard L. |last21=Ceruti |first21=Maria Constanza |last22=Reinhard |first22=Johan |last23=Wells |first23=R. Spencer |last24=Politis |first24=Gustavo |last25=Santoro |first25=Calogero M. |last26=Standen |first26=Vivien G. |last27=Smith |first27=Colin |last28=Reich |first28=David |last29=Ho |first29=Simon Y. W. |last30=Cooper |first30=Alan |last31=Haak |first31=Wolfgang |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA provides high-resolution time scale of the peopling of the Americas |journal=Science Advances |date=1 April 2016 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=e1501385 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1501385 |pmid=27051878 |pmc=4820370 |bibcode=2016SciA....2E1385L }}</ref>

===== Linguistic comparison with Siberia =====

Linguistic studies have supported genetic findings, revealing ancient patterns between the languages spoken in [[Siberia]] and those in the Americas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dediu |first1=Dan |last2=Levinson |first2=Stephen C. |title=Abstract Profiles of Structural Stability Point to Universal Tendencies, Family-Specific Factors, and Ancient Connections between Languages |journal=PLOS ONE|date=20 September 2012 |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=e45198 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0045198 |pmid=23028843 |pmc=3447929 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...745198D |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===== The Oceanic component in the Amazon region =====

Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Native peoples of the Americas. However, an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the [[Indigenous peoples of Oceania|Indigenous peoples of Australia and Melanesia]] was detected among the Native populations of the [[Amazon region]]. This migration from [[Siberia]] is estimated to have occurred around 23,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Genomic evidence for the Pleistocene and recent population history of Native Americans|journal=Science|volume=349|issue=6250|pages=aab3884| author=Raghavan |date=21 August 2015|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1126/science.aab3884|pmc=4733658 |pmid=26198033}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skoglund |first1=P |last2=Mallick |first2=S |last3=Bortolini |first3=MC |last4=Chennagiri |first4=N |last5=Hünemeier |first5=T |last6=Petzl-Erler |first6=ML |author-link6=Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler |last7=Salzano |first7=FM |last8=Patterson |first8=N |last9=Reich |first9=D |date=21 July 2015 |title=Genetic evidence for two founding populations of the Americas |journal=Nature |volume=525 |issue=7567 |pages=104–8 |bibcode=2015Natur.525..104S |doi=10.1038/nature14895 |pmc=4982469 |pmid=26196601}}</ref><ref name="Skoglund2016">{{cite journal|last1= Skoglund|first1= P.|last2= Reich|first2= D.|title=A genomic view of the peopling of the Americas|journal= Current Opinion in Genetics & Development|volume= 41|year= 2016|pages= 27–35|doi= 10.1016/j.gde.2016.06.016|pmc= 5161672|pmid=27507099}}</ref>

====Archaeological remains====
[[File:Índios da etnia Terena2.jpg|thumb|right|Terena people]]
Brazilian native peoples, unlike those in [[Mesoamerica]] and the [[Andean civilizations]], did not keep written records or erect stone monuments. The humid climate and acidic soil have destroyed almost all traces of their material culture, including [[wood]] and [[bone]]s. Therefore, what is known about the region's history before 1500 has been inferred and reconstructed from limited archaeological evidence, such as [[Indigenous ceramics of the Americas|ceramics]] and stone [[arrowhead]]s.

The most conspicuous remains of these societies are vast mounds of discarded [[shellfish]], known as ''sambaquis'', found at some coastal sites that were continuously inhabited for more than 5,000 years. Additionally, substantial "black earth" (''[[terra preta]]'') deposits in several places along the Amazon are believed to be ancient garbage dumps ([[midden]]s). Recent excavations of these deposits in the middle and upper Amazon have uncovered remains of massive settlements, containing tens of thousands of homes, indicating a complex social and economic structure.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Fernandes |first1=Cássia |last2=Farias |first2=Orlando |date=2001-01-22 |title=Materiais indígenas são levados do Amazonas |url=http://www.amazonia.org.br/noticias/print.cfm?id=2691 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161105/http://www.amazonia.org.br/noticias/print.cfm?id=2691 |archive-date=2011-07-06 |access-date= |website=amazonia.org.br |place=[[Manaus]]}}</ref>

Studies of the wear patterns of precontact inhabitants of coastal Brazil found that the surfaces of [[anterior teeth]] facing the tongue were more worn than those facing the lips. Researchers believe this wear was caused by using teeth to peel and shred abrasive [[plants]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Food |year=2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeworldhi01kipl |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeworldhi01kipl/page/n56 19]}}</ref>

====Marajoara culture====
{{Main|Marajoara culture}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
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; Marajoara culture
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<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
Burian urn, AD 1000-1250, Marajoara culture - AMNH - DSC06177 b.jpg|Burial urn
Cultura Marajoara - Cerâmica MN 05.jpg|Marajoara bowl
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<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
Plate MET 2005.461 a.jpg|Marajoara plate
Funerary vessel Collection H Law 172 n1.jpg|Funerary urn
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The [[Marajoara culture]] flourished on [[Marajó|Marajó island]] at the mouth of the [[Amazon River]].<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Charles C. |author-link=Charles C. Mann |title=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus |orig-year=2005 |year=2006 |publisher=Vintage Books |pages=[https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 326–333] |isbn=978-1-4000-3205-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 }}</ref> Archaeologists have uncovered sophisticated [[pottery]] in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, elaborately painted, and incised with representations of plants and animals. This discovery provided the first evidence of a complex society on Marajó. Further evidence of [[mound building]] suggests that well-populated, complex, and sophisticated settlements developed on the island, as only such settlements were believed capable of undertaking extensive projects like major earthworks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grann|first=David|title=The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon|page=[https://archive.org/details/lostcityofztaleo00gran/page/315 315]|year=2009|publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-51353-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lostcityofztaleo00gran/page/315}}</ref>

The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been subjects of dispute. In the 1950s, American archaeologist [[Betty Meggers]], in some of her earliest research, suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America, who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains.

In the 1980s, American archaeologist [[Anna Curtenius Roosevelt]] led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roosevelt|first=Anna C.|title=Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajó Island, Brazil|publisher= Academic Press |year= 1991 |isbn=978-0-125-95348-1}}</ref>

The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed [[social stratification]] and supported a [[population]] as large as 100,000 people.<ref name="Mann" /> The Native Americans of the Amazon rainforest may have used their method of developing and working in [[terra preta]] to make the land suitable for the large-scale [[agriculture]] needed to support large populations and complex social formations, such as [[chiefdoms]].<ref name="Mann" />

====Xinguano civilisation====
The [[Xingu peoples]] built large settlements connected by roads and bridges, often featuring moats. Their development peaked between 13th and 17th century, with their population reaching into the tens of thousands.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wren |first1=Kathleen |title=Lost cities of the Amazon revealed |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3077413 |work=NBC News |date=2 December 2003 }}</ref>

===Native people after the European colonisation===

==== Distribution ====
[[File:Map of indigenous peoples of Brazil (16th C.).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Distribution of Tupi and Tapuia people on the coast of Brazil, on the eve of colonialism in the 16th century]]
On the eve of the [[2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)|Portuguese arrival]] in 1500, the coastal areas of Brazil were dominated by two major groups: the ''[[Tupí people|Tupi]]'' (speakers of [[Tupi–Guarani languages]]), who occupied almost the entire length of the Brazilian coast, and the ''Tapuia'' (a general term for non-Tupi groups, usually [[Jê language|Jê-speaking]] peoples), who primarily resided in the interior. The Portuguese arrived at the end of a long pre-colonial conflict between the Tupis and Tapuias, which had led to the defeat and expulsion of the Tapuias from most coastal areas.

Although the coastal Tupi were divided into sub-tribes that were frequently hostile to each other, they were culturally and linguistically homogeneous. The fact that early Europeans encountered essentially the same people and language along the Brazilian coast greatly facilitated communication and interaction.

Coastal Sequence c. 1500 (north to south):<ref>Boundary details are partly derived from [http://www.arara.fr/BBTRIBOS.html Tribos Indígenas Brasileiras] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703092419/http://www.arara.fr/BBTRIBOS.html |date=3 July 2011 }}</ref>
# '''[[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]]''' (Tupi, from the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] delta to [[Maranhão]])
# '''[[Tremembé people|Tremembé]]''' (Tapuia, coastal tribe, ranged from [[São Luis Island]] (south Maranhão) to the mouth of the [[Acaraú River]] in north [[Ceará]]; French traders cultivated an alliance with them)
# '''[[Potiguara people|Potiguara]]''' (Tupi, literally "shrimp-eaters"; they had a reputation as great canoeists and aggressive expansionists, inhabited a great coastal stretch from [[Acaraú River]] to [[Itamaracá]] island, covering the modern states of southern Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte and Paraíba.)
# '''[[Tabajara]]''' (tiny Tupi tribe between Itamaracá island and [[Paraíba do Norte River|Paraíba River]]; neighbors and frequent victims of the Potiguara)
# '''[[Caeté people|Caeté]]''' (Tupi group in [[Pernambuco]] and [[Alagoas]], ranged from [[Paraíba do Meio River|Paraíba River]] to the [[São Francisco River]]; after killing and eating a Portuguese bishop, they were subjected to Portuguese extermination raids and the remnant pushed into the Pará interior)
# '''[[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]]''' again (Tupi par excellence, ranged from the São Francisco River to the [[Bay of All Saints]], population estimated as high as 100,000; hosted Portuguese castaway [[Caramuru]])
# '''[[Tupiniquim]]''' (Tupi, covered the [[Bahia]]n [[Bahia#The Discovery Coast|discovery coast]], from around [[Camamu]] to [[São Mateus River]]; these were the first Indigenous people encountered by the Portuguese, having met the landing of captain [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] in April 1500)
# '''[[Botocudo people|Aimoré]]''' (Tapuia (Jê) tribe; concentrated on a sliver of coast in modern [[Espírito Santo]] state)
# '''[[Goitacá people|Goitacá]]''' (Tapuia tribe; once dominated the coast from the [[São Mateus River]] (in Espírito Santo state) down to the [[Paraíba do Sul]] River (in [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] state); hunter-gatherers and fishermen, they were a shy people that avoided all contact with foreigners; estimated at 12,000; they had a fearsome reputation and were eventually annihilated by European colonists)
# '''[[Temiminó]]''' (small Tupi tribe, centered on [[Governador Island]] in [[Guanabara Bay]]; frequently at war with the Tamoio around them)
# '''[[Tamoio]]''' (Tupi, an old branch of the Tupinambá, ranged from the western edge of Guanabara Bay to [[Ilha Grande]])
# '''[[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]]''' again (Tupi, indistinct from the Tamoio. Inhabited the Paulist coast, from Ilha Grande to [[Santos, São Paulo|Santos]]; main enemies of the Tupiniquim to their west. Numbered between six and ten thousand).
# '''[[Tupiniquim]]''' again (Tupi, on the [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] coast from Santos/Bertioga down to [[Cananéia]]; aggressive expansionists, they were recent arrivals imposing themselves on the Paulist coast and the [[Piratininga]] plateau at the expense of older Tupinambá and Carijó neighbors; hosted Portuguese castaways [[João Ramalho]] ('Tamarutaca') and António Rodrigues in the early 1500s; the Tupiniquim were the first formal allies of the Portuguese colonists, helped establish the Portuguese [[Captaincy of São Vicente]] in the 1530s; sometimes called "Guaianá" in old Portuguese chronicles, a Tupi term meaning "friendly" or "allied")
# '''[[Carijó]]''' (Guarani (Tupi) tribe, ranged from Cananeia all the way down to [[Lagoa dos Patos]] (in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] state); victims of the Tupiniquim and early European slavers; they hosted the mysterious ''[[degredado]]'' known as the '[[Bachelor of Cananeia]]')
# '''[[Charrúa]]''' (Tapuia (Jê) tribe in modern [[Uruguay]] coast, with an aggressive reputation against intruders; killed [[Juan Díaz de Solís]] in 1516)
[[File:Debret - Carga de cavalaria guaicuru.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A painting of a Guaycuru cavalry charge, 1822 by [[Debret]]]]

With the exception of the [[hunter-gatherer]] [[Goitacases]], the coastal Tupi and Tapuia tribes were primarily agriculturalists. The subtropical Guarani cultivated [[maize]], tropical Tupi cultivated manioc ([[cassava]]), and highland Jês cultivated [[peanut|peanuts]] as the staple of their diet. Supplementary crops included [[bean]]s, [[sweet potato]]es, cará ([[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]), ''jerimum'' ([[pumpkin]]), and ''cumari'' ([[capsicum]] pepper).

Behind the coasts, the interior of Brazil was primarily dominated by Tapuia (Jê) people, although significant sections of the interior (notably the upper reaches of the [[Xingu River|Xingu]], [[Teles Pires]], and [[Juruena River]]s, roughly corresponding to modern [[Mato Grosso]] state) were the original pre-migration Tupi-Guarani homelands. In addition to the Tupi and Tapuia, two other Indigenous mega-groups were commonly identified in the interior: the [[Kalina people|Caribs]], who inhabited much of what is now northwestern Brazil, including both shores of the [[Amazon River]] up to the delta, and the [[Nuaraque]] group, whose constituent tribes inhabited several areas, including most of the upper Amazon (west of present-day [[Manaus]]) and significant pockets in modern [[Amapá]] and [[Roraima]] states.

The names by which different Tupi tribes were recorded by Portuguese and French authors in the 16th century are poorly understood. Most do not seem to be proper names but rather descriptions of relationships, usually familial—e.g., ''Tupi'' means "first father," ''Tupinambá'' means "relatives of the ancestors," ''Tupiniquim'' means "side-neighbors," ''Tamoio'' means "grandfather," ''Temiminó'' means "grandson," ''Tabajara'' means "in-laws," and so on.<ref>M. Pereira Gomes, ''The Indians and Brazil'', p.32</ref> Some etymologists believe these names reflect the ordering of migration waves of Tupi people from the interior to the coasts. For example, the first Tupi wave to reach the coast might have been referred to as "grandfathers" (Tamoio), soon joined by the "relatives of the ancients" (Tupinambá), which could mean relatives of the Tamoio or a Tamoio term for relatives of the old Tupi in the upper Amazon basin. The "grandsons" (Temiminó) might represent a splinter group, while the "side-neighbors" (Tupiniquim) could denote recent arrivals still establishing their presence. However, by 1870, the Tupi tribes' population had declined to 250,000 Indigenous people, and by 1890, it had diminished to approximately 100,000.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan=2 | Native Brazilian Population in Northeast Coast (Dutch estimates)<ref>Leslie Bethell, MARY AMAZONAS LEITE DE BARROS
. "História da América Latina: América Latina Colonial Vol. 2". EdUSP. São Paulo, p.317, 1997.</ref>
|-
! Period!! Total
|-
| 1540 || +100,000
|-
| 1640 || 9,000
|}

====First contacts====
[[File:Os Filhos de Pindorama. Cannibalism in Brazil in 1557.jpg|thumb|16th century depiction of [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]] in the Brazilian Tupinambá tribe, as described by [[Hans Staden]] ]]
[[File:Dança dos Tapuias.jpg|thumb|A painting by [[Albert Eckhout]] (Dutch), [[#Native people after the European colonization|Tapuias]] (Brazil) dancing, 17th c.]]

When the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] explorers first arrived in Brazil in April 1500, they found, to their astonishment, a wide coastline rich in resources and teeming with hundreds of thousands of Indigenous people living in a "paradise" of natural abundance. [[Pero Vaz de Caminha]], the official scribe of [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], the commander of the discovery fleet that landed in the present state of [[Bahia]], wrote a letter to the King of Portugal describing in glowing terms the beauty of the land.

In "Histoire des découvertes et conquêtes des Portugais dans le Nouveau Monde,"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Histoire des découvertes et conquestes des Portugais dans le Nouveau Monde {{!}} Early Americas Digital Archive (EADA) |url=http://eada.lib.umd.edu/text-entries/histoire-des-decouvertes-et-conquestes-des-portugais-dans-le-nouveau-monde/ |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=eada.lib.umd.edu}}</ref> Lafitau described the natives as people who wore no clothing but painted their entire bodies red. Their ears, noses, lips, and cheeks were pierced. The men would shave the front, top of the head, and over the ears, while women typically wore their hair loose or in braids. Both men and women accessorized with noisy porcelain collars and bracelets, feathers, and dried fruits. Lafitau also described the ritualistic nature of their cannibalism practices and highlighted the important role of women in the household.

Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory of present-day Brazil had an estimated population of between 1 and 11.25 million inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Estimated Indigenous populations of the Americas at the time of European contact, beginning in 1492|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1171896/pre-colonization-population-americas/|access-date=2023-04-20}}</ref> During the first 100 years of contact, the Amerindian population was reduced by 90%. This drastic decline was primarily due to diseases and illnesses brought by the colonists, compounded by slavery and European violence.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brazilian Indians|url=https://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/brazilian|website=survivalinternational.org/tribes/brazilian|access-date=2021-07-07}}</ref> The Indigenous people were traditionally semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migratory agriculture. For centuries, they lived semi-nomadic lives, managing the forests to meet their needs.

When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the natives primarily inhabited the coast and the banks of major rivers. Initially, Europeans viewed them as [[noble savage]]s, and [[miscegenation]] began almost immediately. Portuguese claims of tribal warfare, [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]], and the pursuit of Amazonian [[brazilwood]] for its prized red dye convinced the colonists that they needed to "civilize" the natives (originally, the Portuguese named Brazil [[Terra de Santa Cruz]], but it later acquired its current name (see [[List of meanings of countries' names]]) from the [[brazilwood]]). However, like the Spanish in North America, the Portuguese brought diseases to which many Amerindians had no immunity. [[Measles]], [[smallpox]], [[tuberculosis]], and [[influenza]] caused the deaths of tens of thousands. The diseases spread rapidly along Indigenous trade routes, likely leading to the annihilation of entire tribes without direct contact with Europeans.

By 1800, the population of [[Colonial Brazil]] had reached approximately 2.33 million, of which only around 174,900 were Indigenous. By 1850, that number had dwindled to an estimated 78,400 out of a total population of 5.8 million.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bucciferro |first=Justin R. |title=A Forced Hand: Natives, Africans, and the Population of Brazil, 1545-1850 |journal=Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History |publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) |volume=31 |issue=2 |date=2013-07-03 |issn=0212-6109 |doi=10.1017/s0212610913000104 |pages=285–317 |url=https://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/27364/RHE-2013-XXXI-Bucciferro.pdf |language=English |access-date=24 September 2021|hdl=10016/27364 |s2cid=154533961 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

====Slavery and the bandeiras====
[[File:Famille d’un Chef Camacan se préparant pour une Fête.jpg|thumb|A painting representing Brazilian Amerindians during a ritual, [[Debret]]]]
The mutual feeling of wonderment and goodwill was to end in the subsequent years. The Portuguese [[colonist]]s, all males, began to have children with female Amerindians, creating a new generation of mixed-race people who spoke Amerindian languages, including a [[Tupi language]] called [[Nheengatu language|Nheengatu]]. The children of these Portuguese men and Amerindian women soon formed the majority of the population. Groups of fierce explorers organized expeditions known as "[[Bandeirantes|bandeiras]]" (flags) into the interior to claim territory for the Portuguese crown and to search for [[gold]] and [[precious stone]]s.

Intending to profit from the [[sugar trade]], the Portuguese decided to cultivate [[sugar cane]] in Brazil and to use Indigenous slaves as the workforce, following the example of the Spanish colonies. However, capturing Indigenous people proved difficult. They were soon afflicted by diseases brought by the Europeans, against which they had no natural [[immune system|immunity]], leading to high mortality rates.

====The Jesuits====
{{POV|section|talk=POV check request for 2.4 The Jesuits: Protectors of the Indians|date=September 2020}}

{{Main|Jesuit Reductions}}
[[File:Indigenous brazil.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of [[Indigenous territory (Brazil)|Indigenous territories]] in Brazil.]]
[[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priests arrived with the first [[Governor General]] as clerical assistants to the colonists, with the intention of converting the Indigenous people to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]. They argued that the Indigenous people should be regarded as [[human]] and succeeded in obtaining a [[Papal bull]], ''[[Sublimis Deus]],'' which declared that, regardless of their beliefs, they should be recognized as fully rational human beings with rights to freedom and private property, and thus should not be enslaved.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Lippy, Charles H.|title=Christianity comes to the Americas, 1492–1776|date=1992|publisher=Paragon House|others=Choquette, Robert, 1938–, Poole, Stafford.|isbn=1-55778-234-2|edition=1st |location=New York, N.Y.|oclc=23648978}}</ref>
[[File:Iracema (Antonio Parreiras, 1909).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Iracema]]'' (1909), by Antônio Parreiras (1850-1937), a painting representing the Native Iracema who falls in love with a European colonizer]]
Jesuit priests, such as Fathers [[José de Anchieta]] and [[Manuel da Nóbrega]], studied and recorded the Indigenous languages and founded mixed settlements, such as [[São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga]], where colonists and Amerindians lived side by side, spoke the same ''[[Língua Geral]]'' (common language), and freely intermarried. They also began to establish more remote villages inhabited only by "civilized" Amerindians, known as Missions or [[Indian Reductions|reductions]] (see the article on the [[Guarani people]] for more details).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Caraman |first=Philip |title=The Lost Paradise: an account of the Jesuits in Paraguay, 1607–1768 |date=1975 |publisher=Sidgwick and Jackson |isbn=0-283-98212-8 |location=London |oclc=2187394}}</ref>

By the middle of the 16th century, Jesuit priests, at the behest of Portugal's monarchy, had established missions throughout the country's colonies. They aimed to Europeanize and convert the Indigenous populations to Catholicism. Some historians argue that the Jesuits provided a period of relative stability for the Amerindians<ref name=":1" /> and opposed using them for slave labor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eisenberg |first=José |date=2004 |title=A escravidão voluntária dos índios do Brasil e o pensamento político moderno |url=http://analisesocial.ics.ul.pt/documentos/1218704648R7vGO3gi9Rk66BF2.pdf |language=Portuguese |journal=Análise Social |volume=XXXIX |issue=170 |pages=7–35 |access-date= 7 July 2021}}</ref> However, the Jesuits also contributed to European imperialism. Many historians view Jesuit involvement as an ethnocide of Indigenous culture,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knauß |first=Stefan |date=2010 |title='Jesuit Engagement in Brazil between 1549 and 1609 – A legitimate support of Indians' emancipation or Eurocentricmovement of conversion?'|journal=Astrolabio|volume=Revista internacional de filosofíaAño|pages=227–238}}</ref> where the Jesuits attempted to 'Europeanize' the Indigenous Peoples of Brazil.

In the mid-1770s, the fragile coexistence between the Indigenous peoples and the colonists was once again threatened. Due to a complex diplomatic situation involving Portugal, Spain, and the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil, and their missions were confiscated and sold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roehner |first1=Bertrand M. |title=Jesuits and the State: A Comparative Study of their Expulsions (1590–1990) |journal=Religion |date=1 April 1997 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=165–182 |doi=10.1006/reli.1996.0048 }}</ref>

====Wars====
{{Main article|Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil}}
[[File:Debret2.jpg|thumb|upright|A Tamoio Warrior depicted by [[Jean-Baptiste Debret]] in the early 19th century]]
A number of wars broke out between various tribes, such as the [[Tamoio Confederation]], and the Portuguese. Occasionally, the Amerindians allied with Portugal’s enemies, such as the French during the [[France Antarctique]] episode in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. At other times, they sided with Portugal against rival tribes. During this period, a German soldier named [[Hans Staden]] was captured by the [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]] and later released. He documented his experiences in his famous book ''Warhaftige Historia und Beschreibung eyner Landtschafft der Wilden Nacketen, Grimmigen Menschfresser-Leuthen in der Newenwelt America gelegen'' (1557), which translates to ''True Story and Description of a Country of Wild, Naked, Grim, Man-Eating People in the New World, America''.

There are documented accounts of [[smallpox]] being [[biological warfare|used as a biological weapon]] by some Brazilian villagers seeking to eliminate nearby Amerindian tribes, not always aggressively. One notable instance, according to anthropologist Mércio Pereira Gomes, occurred in Caxias, in southern Maranhão. Local farmers, desiring more land for their cattle farms, gave clothing from sick villagers (which would normally have been burned to prevent further infection) to the Timbira. The clothing infected the entire tribe, who had neither immunity nor a cure. Similar incidents occurred in other villages throughout South America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.socioambiental.org/noticias/nsa/nsa/detalhe?id=64|title=Notícias socioambientais :: Socioambiental|work=socioambiental.org|access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>

====The rubber trade====
The 1840s brought trade and wealth to the [[Amazon Basin|Amazon]] with the development of the [[vulcanization]] process for [[rubber]], leading to a worldwide surge in demand. The best [[rubber tree]]s in the world grew in the Amazon, and thousands of rubber tappers began working the plantations. When the Amerindians proved to be a difficult labor force, peasants from surrounding areas were brought in. This created ongoing tension between the Indigenous population and the new arrivals, as the Amerindians felt their lands were being invaded in the pursuit of wealth.

====The legacy of Cândido Rondon====
[[File:Cândido Rondon.jpg|thumb|upright|Marshal [[Cândido Rondon]] ]]
In the 20th century, the Brazilian government adopted a more humanitarian approach and began offering official protection to the Indigenous people, including establishing the first Indigenous reserves. The situation for the Amerindians improved around the turn of the century when [[Cândido Rondon]], a man of both [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Bororo (Brazil)|Bororo]] ancestry, and an explorer and progressive officer in the Brazilian army, began working to gain the Amerindians' trust and establish peace. Rondon, assigned to extend telegraph communications into the Amazon, was a natural explorer with a keen curiosity. In 1910, he helped establish the ''[[Indian Protection Service|Serviço de Proteção aos Índios]] (SPI),'' now known as FUNAI (''[[Fundação Nacional do Índio]]'', National Foundation for Indians). SPI was the first federal agency tasked with protecting Amerindians and preserving their culture. In 1914, Rondon accompanied [[Theodore Roosevelt]] on his famous expedition to map the Amazon and discover new species. During these travels, Rondon was appalled by the treatment of the Indigenous people by settlers and developers, and he became their lifelong friend and protector.

Rondon, who died in 1958, is considered a national hero in Brazil. The Brazilian state of [[Rondônia]] is named in his honor.

====SPI failure and FUNAI====
[[File:Indígena da etnia Tapirapé.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tapirapé people|Tapirapé]] woman [[body painting|with body paint]] ]]
After Rondon's pioneering work, the SPI was handed over to bureaucrats and military officers, and its effectiveness declined after 1957. The new officials did not share Rondon's deep commitment to the Amerindians. Instead, the SPI sought to integrate tribal groups into mainstream Brazilian society. The promise of wealth from reservation lands attracted cattle ranchers and settlers, who continued encroaching on Indigenous territories, with the SPI facilitating this intrusion. Between 1900 and 1967, an estimated 98 Indigenous tribes were wiped out.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}

Due largely to the efforts of the [[Villas-Bôas brothers]], Brazil's first Indigenous reserve, the [[Xingu Indigenous Park|Xingu National Park]], was established by the federal government in 1961.

During the social and political upheaval of the 1960s, reports of mistreatment of Amerindians increasingly reached Brazil's [[urban center]]s and began to affect public opinion. In 1967, following the publication of the ''[[Figueiredo Report]]'', commissioned by the Ministry of the Interior, the military government launched an investigation into the SPI. It was soon revealed that the SPI was corrupt and failing to protect natives, their lands, and their culture. The 5,000-page report cataloged atrocities including slavery, sexual abuse, torture, and mass murder.<ref name="urlFUNAI – National Indian Foundation (Brazil)">{{cite web
|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/about/funai
|title=FUNAI – National Indian Foundation (Brazil)
|access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> It was alleged that agency officials, in collaboration with land speculators, were systematically slaughtering the Amerindians by intentionally distributing disease-laced clothing.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Criminal prosecutions followed, and the SPI was disbanded.

The same year, the government established the Fundação Nacional do Índio (National Indian Foundation), known as FUNAI, which is responsible for protecting the interests, cultures, and rights of Indigenous peoples in Brazil. Some tribes have become significantly integrated into Brazilian society. The unacculturated tribes that have been contacted by FUNAI are supposed to be protected and accommodated within Brazilian society to varying degrees. By 1987, it was recognized that unnecessary contact with these tribes was causing illness and social disintegration. Uncontacted tribes are now meant to be shielded from intrusion and interference in their lifestyle and territory.<ref name="urlFUNAI – National Indian Foundation (Brazil)" /> However, the exploitation of [[rubber]] and other Amazonian natural resources has led to a new cycle of invasion, expulsion, massacres, and death, which continues to this day.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

====The military government====
In 1964, a seismic political shift occurred when the Brazilian military [[1964 Brazilian coup d'état|took control of the government]] and abolished all existing political parties, creating a two-party system. For the next two decades, Brazil was ruled by a series of generals. The country's mantra was "Brazil, the Country of the Future," which the military government used to justify a massive push into the Amazon to exploit its resources, aiming to transform Brazil into one of the leading economies of the world.

Construction began on a transcontinental highway across the Amazon basin, designed to encourage migration to the region and facilitate trade. Funded by the [[World Bank]], thousands of square miles of forest were cleared without regard for reservation status. Following the highway projects, giant hydroelectric projects were initiated, and vast areas of forest were cleared for cattle ranching. As a result, reservation lands suffered massive deforestation and flooding. The public works projects attracted very few migrants, but those who did arrive—largely poor settlers—brought new diseases that further devastated the Amerindian population.

====Contemporary situation====
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! colspan="8" |Native Brazilians 1872-2022
|-
! Year
! Population
! <small>% of<br />Brazil</small>
|-
||'''1872'''||386,955||{{steady}} 3.90%
|-
||'''1890'''||1,295,795||{{increase}} 9.04%
|-
||'''1991'''||294,135||{{decrease}} 0.20%
|-
||'''2000'''||734,127||{{increase}} 0.43%
|-
||'''2010'''||817,963||{{steady}} 0.43%
|-
||'''2022'''||1,227,642||{{increase}} 0.60%
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:left;" |<small>Source: Brazilian census<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tabela 9605: População residente, por cor ou raça, nos Censos Demográficos |url=https://sidra.ibge.gov.br/tabela/9605#resultado |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=sidra.ibge.gov.br}}</ref></small>
|}

[[File:Índios isolados no Acre 12.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Members of an [[Uncontacted peoples|uncontacted tribe]] encountered in the Brazilian state of [[Acre (state)|Acre]] in 2009]]
The [[Constitution of Brazil|1988 Brazilian Constitution]] recognizes the right of Indigenous peoples to pursue their traditional ways of life and to the permanent and exclusive possession of their "traditional lands," which are demarcated as [[Indigenous territory (Brazil)|Indigenous Territories]].<ref name="constitution">Federal Constitution of Brazil. [http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleVIII.html Chapter VII Article 231] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101070441/http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleVIII.html |date=1 January 2011 }}.</ref> Additionally, Indigenous peoples are legally recognized as one of several "[[Traditional peoples in Brazil|traditional peoples]]". In practice, however, Brazil's Indigenous people still face significant threats and challenges to their continued existence and cultural heritage.<ref name="US DoS">{{cite web |title=Brazil |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/wha/119150.htm |work=2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices |publisher=U.S. Department of State }}</ref> 

The process of land demarcation is slow, often involving protracted legal battles, and [[Fundação Nacional do Índio|FUNAI]] lacks sufficient resources to enforce legal protections on Indigenous lands.<ref name="ISA Intro">{{cite web |title=Indigenous Lands > Introduction > About Lands|url=http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/c/terras-indigenas/introducao/o-que-sao-terras-indigenas|work=Povos Indígenas no Brasil|publisher=Instituo Socioambiental (ISA)|access-date=24 March 2011|archive-date=12 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512015415/http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/c/terras-indigenas/introducao/o-que-sao-terras-indigenas|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="US DoS" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Borges |first1=Beto |last2=Combrisson |first2=Gilles |title=Indigenous Rights in Brazil: Stagnation to Political Impasse |url=http://saiic.nativeweb.org/brazil.html|publisher=South and Meso American Indian Rights Center |access-date=24 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwartzman |first1=Stephan |title=Brazil The Legal Battle Over Indigenous Land Rights |journal=NACLA Report on the Americas |date=1 March 1996 |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=36–43 |doi=10.1080/10714839.1996.11725759 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Brazilian Indians 'win land case'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7774895.stm|access-date=24 March 2011|publisher=BBC News|date=11 December 2008}}</ref> Since the 1980s, exploitation of the Amazon Rainforest for mining, logging, and cattle ranching had surged, which poses a severe threat to the region's Indigenous population. Settlers illegally encroaching on Indigenous land continue to destroy the environment necessary for traditional ways of life, provoke violent confrontations, and spread disease.<ref name="US DoS" /> 

Groups such as the [[Akuntsu]] and [[Kanoê]] have been pushed to the brink of extinction in the past three decades.<ref name="ISA Akuntsu">{{cite web|title=Introduction > Akuntsu|url=http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/akuntsu |work=Povos Indígenas no Brasil|access-date=8 March 2011|author=Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)}}</ref><ref name="ISA Kanoe">{{cite web|title=Introduction > Kanoê|url=http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/kanoe|work=Povos Indígenas no Brasil|access-date=8 March 2011|author=Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)}}</ref> Deforestation for mining also affects the daily lives of Indigenous tribes in Brazil.<ref name="Paixao 587–597" /> For example, the Munduruku Amerindians have higher levels of mercury poisoning due to gold production in their area.<ref name="Oliveira Santos et al 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Oliveira Santos |first1=Elisabeth C. de |last2=Maura de Jesus |first2=Iracina |last3=Camara |first3=Volney e M. |last4=Brabo |first4=Edilson |last5=Brito Loureiro |first5=Edvaldo C. |last6=Mascarenhas |first6=Artur |last7=Weirich |first7=Judith |last8=Ragio Luiz |first8=Ronir |last9=Cleary |first9=David |title=Mercury exposure in Munduruku Indians from the community of Sai Cinza, state of Para, Brazil |journal=Environmental Research |date=1 October 2002 |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=98–103 |doi=10.1006/enrs.2002.4389 |pmid=12483799 |bibcode=2002ER.....90...98D |osti=20390954 |s2cid=22429649 }}</ref> On 13 November 2012, the national Indigenous people association from Brazil, APIB, submitted a human rights document to the United Nations, detailing complaints about proposed laws in Brazil that would further undermine their rights if approved.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2866 |title=English version of human rights complaint document submitted to the United Nations by the National Indigenous Peoples Organization from Brazil (APIB) |publisher=Earth Peoples |date=13 November 2012 |access-date=19 November 2012 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401070014/http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2866 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Many terms from Native languages have been incorporated into official [[Brazilian Portuguese]]. For example, "Carioca," the term used to describe people born in the city of Rio de Janeiro, derives from the Tupi-Guaraní word meaning "house of the white (people)."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dicionariotupiguarani.com.br/dicionario/carioca/ |title=Dicionário Ilustrado Tupi-Guarani |date=27 February 2015 |access-date=14 June 2018 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225051010/https://www.dicionariotupiguarani.com.br/dicionario/carioca/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Fulni-ô fala da cultura do seu povo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Fulni-ô representative talks about the culture of his people to schoolchildren in the Botanical Garden of [[Brasília|Brasilia]], in celebration of [[Indigenous Peoples Day (Brazil)|Indian Day]], 2011]]
Within hours of taking office in January 2019, Bolsonaro made two major changes to FUNAI, affecting its responsibility to identify and demarcate [[Indigenous territory (Brazil)|Indigenous territories]]. He moved FUNAI from under the Ministry of Justice to the newly created Ministry of Human Rights, Family, and Women, and he delegated the identification of traditional habitats of Indigenous people and their designation as protected territories—a task attributed to FUNAI by the constitution—to the Agriculture Ministry.<ref name="mendes-2019-06-05">{{Cite web|author=Karla Mendes|date=2019-06-05|title=Brazil's Congress reverses Bolsonaro, restores Funai's land demarcation powers|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2019/06/brazils-congress-reverses-bolsonaro-restores-funais-land-demarcation-powers/|access-date=2019-08-03|publisher=news.mongabay.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Blasberg |first1=Marian |last2=Evers |first2=Marco |last3=Glüsing |first3=Jens |last4=Hecking |first4=Claus |name-list-style=and |date=2019-01-17 |title=Swath of Destruction: New Brazilian President Takes Aim at the Amazon |newspaper=[[Der Spiegel (website)|Der Spiegel]] |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/the-brazilian-president-s-attack-on-the-amazon-rain-forest-a-1248102.html|access-date=2024-08-30 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819083338/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/the-brazilian-president-s-attack-on-the-amazon-rain-forest-a-1248102.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Bolsonaro argued that these territories had tiny, isolated populations and proposed integrating them into larger Brazilian society. Critics feared that such integration would lead to [[cultural assimilation]] of the Brazilian natives.<ref>{{cite news|date=2 January 2019|title=Brazil's new president makes it harder to define Indigenous lands |work=Global News|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4808295/jair-bolsonaro-funai-indigenous-farm-brazil/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=3 January 2019|title=President Bolsonaro 'declares war' on Brazil's indigenous peoples – Survival responds|work=[[Survival International]]|url=https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/12060}}</ref> Several months later, Brazil's National Congress overturned these changes.

The [[European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement]], which aims to create one of the world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and Indigenous rights campaigners.<ref>{{cite news |title=EU urged to halt trade talks with S. America over Brazil abuses |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190618-eu-urged-halt-trade-talks-with-america-over-brazil-abuses |work=France24 |date=18 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=EU and Mercosur agree huge trade deal after 20-year talks |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48807161 |publisher=BBC News |date=28 June 2019}}</ref> They fear that the deal could lead to increased [[deforestation of the Amazon rainforest]] by expanding market access for Brazilian beef.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Watts |first1=Jonathan |title=We must not barter the Amazon rainforest for burgers and steaks |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2019/jul/02/barter-amazon-rainforest-burgers-steaks-brazil |work=The Guardian |date=2 July 2019 }}</ref>

A 2019 report by the Indigenous Missionary Council on Violence Against Indigenous Peoples in Brazil documented an increase in invasions of Indigenous lands by loggers, miners, and land grabbers. The report recorded 160 cases in the first nine months of 2019, up from 96 cases for all of 2017. Additionally, the number of reported killings increased from 110 in 2017 to 135 in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Santana |first1=Renato |title=A maior violência contra os povos indígenas é a destruição de seus territórios, aponta relatório do Cimi |url=https://cimi.org.br/2019/09/a-maior-violencia-contra-os-povos-indigenas-e-a-apropriacao-e-destruicao-de-seus-territorios-aponta-relatorio-do-cimi/ |date=24 September 2019 |language=pt-BR |trans-title=The greatest violence against Indigenous peoples is the destruction of their territories, points out a Cimi report }}</ref>

On May 5, 2020, following an investigation by Human Rights Watch (HRW), Brazilian lawmakers released a report examining violence against Indigenous people, Afro-Brazilian rural communities, and others involved in illegal logging, mining, and [[land grabbing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/26/brazil-analyzing-violence-against-amazons-residents|title= Brazil Analyzing Violence Against the Amazon's Residents |access-date=26 May 2020|website=HumanRightsWatch|date= 26 May 2020 }}</ref>