Editing History of the Caribbean (section)

== Before European contact ==
{{Further|Seafaring in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean}}
[[File:Photographie art arawak guadeloupe.jpg|thumb|An [[Arawak people|Arawak]] stone carving uncovered in [[Guadeloupe]].]]
During European contact in 1492, Caribbean islands were densely populated by different indigenous groups. Recent scholarly research has investigated the origins and evolution of the islands' populations over the entire period. At the beginning of the current geological epoch, the [[Holocene]] era, the northern part of [[South America]] was occupied by groups of small-game hunters, fishers, and foragers. These groups occasionally resided in semi-permanent campsites while mostly being mobile to use a wide range of plant and animal resources in various habitats.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Boomert|first1=Arie|title=Early settlers of the insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|last2=Hofman|first2=Corinne L.|last3=Antczak|first3=Andrzej T.|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-780-7|location=Leiden|pages=123|oclc=1096240376}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence suggests that [[Trinidad]] was the first Caribbean island settled as early as 9000/8000 BCE. However, the first settlers most likely arrived in Trinidad when it was still attached to South America by land bridges.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boomert|first=Arie|title=The indigenous peoples of Trinidad and Tobago: from the first settlers until today|year=2016|isbn=978-90-8890-354-0|location=Leiden|pages=15|oclc=944910446}}</ref> It was not until about 7000/6000 BCE, during the [[Early Holocene sea level rise|early Holocene]] that Trinidad became an island rather than part of the mainland due to a significant jump in sea level by about 60 m., which may be attributable to climate change. The conclusion is that Trinidad was the only Caribbean Island that could have been colonized by Indigenous people from the South American mainland by not traversing hundreds or thousands of kilometers of the open sea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Napolitano|first1=Matthew F.|last2=DiNapoli|first2=Robert J.|last3=Stone|first3=Jessica H.|last4=Levin|first4=Maureece J.|last5=Jew|first5=Nicholas P.|last6=Lane|first6=Brian G.|last7=O’Connor|first7=John T.|last8=Fitzpatrick|first8=Scott M.|author8-link=Scott M. Fitzpatrick|date=2019|title=Reevaluating human colonization of the Caribbean using chronometric hygiene and Bayesian modeling|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=12|pages=eaar7806|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar7806|pmid=31976370|pmc=6957329|bibcode=2019SciA....5R7806N|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}</ref> The earliest major habitation sites discovered in Trinidad are the shell [[midden]] deposits of [[Banwari Trace]] and St. John, which have been dated between 6000 and 5100 BCE. Both shell middens represent extended deposits of shells discarded by human populations utilizing the crustaceans as a food source and stone and bone tools.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Boomert|first1=Arie|title=Early settlers of the insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|last2=Hofman|first2=Corinne L.|last3=Antczak|first3=Andrzej T.|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-780-7|location=Leiden|pages=127|oclc=1096240376}}</ref> They are considered to belong to the [[Ortoiroid people|Ortoiroid]] archaeological tradition, named after the similar but much more recent [[Ortoire (archaeological site)|Ortoire site]] in Mayaro, Trinidad.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Scholars have attempted to classify Caribbean prehistory into different "ages," a difficult and controversial task.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Early settlers of the insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|last1=Hofman|first1=Corinne L.|last2=Antczak|first2=Andrzej T.|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-780-7|location=Leiden|pages=30|oclc=1096240376}}</ref> In the 1970s archaeologist [[Irving Rouse]] defined three "ages" to classify Caribbean prehistory: the Lithic, Archaic and Ceramic Age, based on archaeological evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rouse|first=Irving|title=Introduction to prehistory: a systematic approach|date=1972|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=0-07-054102-7|location=New York|oclc=923845652}}</ref> Current literature on Caribbean prehistory still uses these three terms, but, there is much dispute regarding their usefulness and definition. In general, the Lithic Age is considered the first era of human development in the Americas and the period where stone chipping was first practiced.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boomert|first=Arie|title=The indigenous peoples of Trinidad and Tobago: from the first settlers until today|year=2016|isbn=978-90-8890-354-0|location=Leiden|oclc=944910446}}</ref> The ensuing Archaic age is often defined by specialized subsistence adaptions, combining hunting, fishing, collecting and the managing of wild food plants.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Arie|first1=Boomert|title=Early settlers of the insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|last2=Hofman|first2=Corinne L.|last3=Antczak|first3=Andrzej T.|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-780-7|location=Leiden|pages=124|oclc=1096240376}}</ref> Ceramic Age communities manufactured ceramic and made use of small-scale agriculture.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Early settlers of the insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|last1=Hofman|first1=Corinne L.|last2=Antczak|first2=Andrzej T.|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-780-7|location=Leiden|pages=59|oclc=1096240376}}</ref>

Except for Trinidad, the first Caribbean islands were settled during the Archaic Age between 3500 and 3000 BCE. Archaeological sites of this period have been located in [[Barbados]], [[Cuba]], [[Curaçao]] and [[Saint Martin (island)|St. Martin]], followed closely by Hispaniola and Puerto Rico.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nägele|first1=Kathrin|last2=Posth|first2=Cosimo|last3=Iraeta Orbegozo|first3=Miren|last4=Chinique de Armas|first4=Yadira|last5=Hernández Godoy|first5=Silvia Teresita|last6=González Herrera|first6=Ulises M.|last7=Nieves-Colón|first7=Maria A.|last8=Sandoval-Velasco|first8=Marcela|last9=Mylopotamitaki|first9=Dorothea|last10=Radzeviciute|first10=Rita|last11=Laffoon|first11=Jason|date=2020|title=Genomic insights into the early peopling of the Caribbean|journal=Science|language=en|volume=369|issue=6502|pages=456–460|doi=10.1126/science.aba8697|pmid=32499399|bibcode=2020Sci...369..456N|s2cid=219329251|issn=0036-8075|hdl=1887/3203890|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This settlement phase is often attributed to the Ortoiroid culture.
[[File:Languages_of_the_Caribbean.png|thumb|Linguistic map of the Caribbean in CE 1500, before European colonization]]
Between 800 and 200 BCE a new migratory group expanded through the Caribbean island: the [[Saladoid]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=William F.|title=The Caribbean before Columbus|last2=Hofman|first2=Corinne L.|year=2017|isbn=978-0-19-060524-7|location=New York, NY|pages=51|oclc=949669477}}</ref> This group is named after the Saladero site in [[Venezuela]], where their distinctive pottery (typically distinguished by white-on-red painted designs) was first identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Napolitano|first1=Matthew F.|last2=DiNapoli|first2=Robert J.|last3=Stone|first3=Jessica H.|last4=Levin|first4=Maureece J.|last5=Jew|first5=Nicholas P.|last6=Lane|first6=Brian G.|last7=O’Connor|first7=John T.|last8=Fitzpatrick|first8=Scott M.|date=2019|title=Reevaluating human colonization of the Caribbean using chronometric hygiene and Bayesian modeling|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=12|pages=2|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar7806|pmid=31976370|pmc=6957329|bibcode=2019SciA....5R7806N|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}</ref> The introduction of pottery and plant domestication to the Caribbean is often attributed to Saladoid groups and is considered the beginning of the Ceramic Age. However, recent studies have revealed that crops and pottery were already present in some Archaic Caribbean populations before the arrival of the Saladoid.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Early settlers of the insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|last1=Hofman|first1=Corinne L.|last2=Antczak|first2=Andrzej T.|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-780-7|location=Leiden|pages=34|oclc=1096240376}}</ref> Although a large number of Caribbean Islands were settled during the Archaic and Ceramic Ages, some islands were presumably visited much later. [[Jamaica]] has no known settlements until around 600 CE while the [[Cayman Islands]] show no evidence of settlement before European arrival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Napolitano|first1=Matthew F.|last2=DiNapoli|first2=Robert J.|last3=Stone|first3=Jessica H.|last4=Levin|first4=Maureece J.|last5=Jew|first5=Nicholas P.|last6=Lane|first6=Brian G.|last7=O’Connor|first7=John T.|last8=Fitzpatrick|first8=Scott M.|date=2019|title=Reevaluating human colonization of the Caribbean using chronometric hygiene and Bayesian modeling|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=12|pages=7|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar7806|pmid=31976370|pmc=6957329|bibcode=2019SciA....5R7806N|issn=2375-2548}}</ref>

Following the colonization of Trinidad, it was originally proposed that Saladoid groups island-hopped their way to Puerto Rico, but current research tends to move away from this stepping-stone model<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Scott M.|date=2013-03-07|title=The Southward Route Hypothesis|journal=Oxford Handbooks Online|pages=201|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195392302.013.0068}}</ref> in favor of the southward route hypothesis. The southward route hypothesis proposes that the northern Antilles were settled directly from South America followed by progressively southward movements into the [[Lesser Antilles]]. This hypothesis has been supported by both [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon]] dates and seafaring simulations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fitzpatrick|first=Scott M.|date=2013-03-07|title=The Southward Route Hypothesis|journal=Oxford Handbooks Online|pages=202|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195392302.013.0068}}</ref> One initial impetus of movement from the mainland to the northern Antilles may have been the search for high quality materials such as flint. Flinty Bay on [[Antigua]], is one of the best-known sources of high-quality flint in the Lesser Antilles. The presence of flint from Antigua on many other Caribbean Islands highlights the importance of this material during the Pre-Contact period.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hofman|first1=Corinne L.|last2=Antczak|first2=Andrzej|title=Early settlers of the Insular Caribbean: dearchaizing the Archaic|publisher=Sidestone Press|year=2019|isbn=978-90-8890-781-4|oclc=1103923296}}</ref>

The period from 650 to 800 CE saw major cultural, socio-political and ritual reformulations, which took place both on the mainland and in many Caribbean islands.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boomert|first=Arie|title=The indigenous peoples of Trinidad and Tobago: from the first settlers until today|year=2016|isbn=978-90-8890-354-0|pages=45|publisher=Sidestone Press |oclc=1087399693}}</ref> The Saladoid interaction sphere disintegrated rapidly. This period is characterized with a change in climate. Centuries of abundant rainfall were replaced by prolonged droughts and increased frequency of hurricanes. In general, the Caribbean population increased, with communities changing from scattered single villages to the creation of settlement clusters. Agricultural activity increased. Analysis of cultural material has also shown the development of tighter networks between islands during the post-Saladoid period.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=William F.|title=The Caribbean before Columbus|last2=Hofman|first2=Corinne L.|year=2017|isbn=978-0-19-060524-7|location=New York, NY|pages=216|oclc=949669477}}</ref>

The period after 800 CE can be seen as a period of transition in which status differentiation and hierarchically ranked society evolved, identified by a shift from achieved to ascribed leadership.<ref name="Keegan2017">{{Cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=William F.|title=The Caribbean before Columbus|last2=Hofman|first2=Corinne L.|year=2017|isbn=978-0-19-060524-7|location=New York, NY|pages=238|oclc=949669477}}</ref> After about 1200 CE this process was interrupted by the absorption of many Caribbean settlements into the evolving socio-political structure of the [[Greater Antilles|Greater Antillean]] society. This process disrupted more-or-less independent lines of development of local communities and marked the beginnings of sociopolitical changes on a much larger scale.<ref name="Keegan2017" />

At the time of the [[European colonization of the Americas|European]] arrival, three major groups of [[indigenous peoples]] lived on the islands: the [[Taíno people|Taíno]] (sometimes also referred to as Arawak) in the [[Greater Antilles]], the [[Bahamas]] and the [[Leeward Islands]]; the [[Kalinago]] and [[Galibi]] in the [[Windward Islands]]; and the [[Ciboney]] in western Cuba. Scholars have divided Taínos into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands.<ref>Rouse, Irving. ''The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus'' {{ISBN|0-300-05696-6}}.</ref> Trinidad was inhabited by both [[Carib language|Carib speaking]] and [[Arawak language|Arawak-speaking]] groups.

[[DNA]] studies changed some of the traditional understandings of pre-Contact indigenous history. In 2003, a geneticist from the [[University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez]], Juan Martínez Cruzado, designed an island-wide DNA survey of Puerto Rico's modern population. The received understanding of the profile of Puerto Ricans' ancestry has been as mainly having Spanish ethnic origins, with some African ancestry, and distant and less significant indigenous ancestry. Martínez Cruzado's research revealed that 61% of all Puerto Ricans have Amerindian mitochondrial DNA, 27% have African and 12% Caucasian.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kearns|first=Rick|date=Jun 2003 – Jun 2004|title=Indigenous Puerto Rico: DNA evidence upsets established history|url=http://www.centrelink.org/KearnsDNA.html|url-status=dead|journal=Issues in Caribbean Amerindian Studies|volume=V|issue=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302041407/http://www.centrelink.org/KearnsDNA.html|archive-date=March 2, 2012|access-date=March 3, 2012}}</ref> According to [[National Geographic]], "Among the surprising findings is that most of the Caribbean’s original inhabitants may have been wiped out by South American newcomers a thousand years before the Spanish invasion that began in 1492. Moreover, indigenous populations of islands like Puerto Rico and Hispaniola were likely far smaller at the time of the Spanish arrival than previously thought."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lawler |first1=Andrew |title=Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/12/invaders-nearly-wiped-out-caribbeans-first-people-long-before-spanish-came-dna-reveals/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223160603/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/12/invaders-nearly-wiped-out-caribbeans-first-people-long-before-spanish-came-dna-reveals/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 23, 2020 |work=National Geographic |date=December 23, 2020}}</ref>