Editing History of Vietnam (section)

== Pre-historic period ==

=== Modern ethnic context ===
[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|thumb|Proposed neolithic migration paths into [[Southeast Asia]], with Austronesian peoples from the sea and Austroasiatic peoples from inland [[Mekong]] which supposed to take place around the third millennium BCE.]]
[[File:Ethnolinguistic map of Indochina 1970.jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of Indochina, 1970]]
[[File:Pottery fruit tray Sa Huynh Culture 2.JPG|thumb|Pottery fruit tray of the [[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huỳnh]] people.]]

Vietnam's modern demography consists of [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|54 different ethnicities]] belonging to five major ethnolinguistic families: [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]], [[Hmong-Mien languages|Hmong-Mien]], [[Kra-Dai languages|Kra-Dai]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]].<ref name="Liu2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu D, Duong NT, Ton ND, Van Phong N, Pakendorf B, Van Hai N, Stoneking M |title=Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=April 2020 |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=2503–2519 |pmid=32344428 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa099 |pmc=7475039 |url=|doi-access=free}}</ref> Among 54 groups, the majority ethnic group is the [[Vietic languages|Vietic]]-speaking [[Kinh people|Kinh]], alone comprising 85.32% of total population in the [[2019 Vietnamese census|2019 census]]. The rest is made up of 53 other ethnic groups. Vietnam's ethnic mosaic results from the peopling process in which various peoples came and settled the territory, leading to the modern state of Vietnam by many stages, often separated by thousands of years over a duration of tens of thousands of years. Vietnam's entire history, thus, is an embroidery of polyethnicity.<ref name="Liu2020" />

=== Pre-Neolithic ===
Early anatomically modern human settlement in mainland Southeast Asia dates back 65 to 10,5 kya (65,000 years ago), during the [[Late Pleistocene]] period.<ref name="Liu2020" /> Probably the foremost hunter-gatherers were the [[Hoabinhian]]s, a large group that gradually settled across Southeast Asia. As part of the [[Initial Upper Paleolithic]] wave, the Hoabinhians, along with the [[Tianyuan man]], are early members of the Ancient Basal East and [[Southeast Asia]]n lineage deeply related to present-day East and Southeast Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Yang MA |date=6 January 2022 |title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia |url=http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001 |journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001 |issn=2770-5005 |quote=...In contrast, mainland East and Southeast Asians and other Pacific islanders (e.g., Austronesian speakers) are closely related to each other [9,15,16] and here denoted as belonging to an East and Southeast Asian (ESEA) lineage (Box 2). …the ESEA lineage differentiated into at least three distinct ancestries: Tianyuan ancestry which can be found 40,000–33,000 years ago in northern East Asia, ancestry found today across present-day populations of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Siberia, but whose origins are unknown, and Hòabìnhian ancestry found 8,000–4,000 years ago in Southeast Asia, but whose origins in the Upper Paleolithic are unknown. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chi-Chun |last2=Witonsky |first2=David |last3=Gosling |first3=Anna |last4=Lee |first4=Ju Hyeon |last5=Ringbauer |first5=Harald |last6=Hagan |first6=Richard |last7=Patel |first7=Nisha |last8=Stahl |first8=Raphaela |last9=Novembre |first9=John |last10=Aldenderfer |first10=Mark |last11=Warinner |first11=Christina |last12=Di Rienzo |first12=Anna |last13=Jeong |first13=Choongwon |date=8 March 2022 |title=Ancient genomes from the Himalayas illuminate the genetic history of Tibetans and their Tibeto-Burman speaking neighbors |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1203 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28827-2 |pmid=35260549 |pmc=8904508 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1203L |issn=2041-1723 |quote=our results reject previously suggested sources of gene flow into the Tibetan lineage13,35,36, including deeply branching Eastern Eurasian lineages, such as the 45,000-year-old Ust’-Ishim individual from southern Siberia, the 40,000-year-old Tianyuan individual from northern China, and Hoabinhian/Onge-related lineages in southeast Asia (Supplementary Fig. 10), suggesting instead that it represents yet another unsampled lineage within early Eurasian genetic diversity. This deep Eurasian lineage is likely to represent the Paleolithic genetic substratum of the Plateau populations.}}</ref> 

An analysis of individuals from the Con Co Ngua site in [[Thanh Hóa province|Thanh Hoa]], Vietnam about 6.2 k cal BP, when restricted to Vietnamese comparisons, showed the closest distance to peoples from Mai Da Dieu, followed by present-day Vietnamese populations. Based on craniometric and dental nonmetric analysis, the Con Co Ngua individuals were phenotypically similar to Late Pleistocene Southeast Asians and modern [[Melanesians]] and [[Aboriginal Australians]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tran |first1=Huyen Linh |last2=Mai |first2=Huong Pham |last3=Thi |first3=Dung Le |last4=Thi |first4=Nhung Doan |display-authors=3 |date=2023 |title=The first maternal genetic study of hunter-gatherers from Vietnam |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00438-023-02050-0#Sec2 |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics |volume=298 |issue=5 |pages=1225–1235 |doi=10.1007/s00438-023-02050-0 |pmid=37438447 |via=Springer Nature Link}}</ref>

=== Neolithic ===
Human migration into Vietnam continued during the [[Neolithic]] period, characterized by movements of [[Ancient Southern East Asian]] populations that expanded from [[southern China]] into Vietnam and Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivated [[millet]] and [[wet-rice]] emerged around 1700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Vietnam are associated with this Neolithic migration, indicated by the presences of major [[paternal lineages]] that are represented by [[East Eurasian]]-affiliated Y-haplogroups [[Haplogroup O-M175|O]], [[Haplogroup C-M217|C2]], and [[Haplogroup N-M231|N]].<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Zhang X, Liao S, Qi X, Liu J, Kampuansai J, Zhang H, Yang Z, Serey B, Sovannary T, Bunnath L, Seang Aun H, Samnom H, Kangwanpong D, Shi H, Su B |date=October 2015 |title=Y-chromosome diversity suggests southern origin and Paleolithic backwave migration of Austro-Asiatic speakers from eastern Asia to the Indian subcontinent |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=5 |pages=15486 |bibcode=2015NatSR...515486Z |doi=10.1038/srep15486 |pmc=4611482 |pmid=26482917}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Liu |first1=Dang |title=Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity |date=2019-11-28 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/857367v1 |access-date=2024-11-14 |language=en |doi=10.1101/857367 |last2=Duong |first2=Nguyen Thuy |last3=Ton |first3=Nguyen Dang |last4=Phong |first4=Nguyen Van |last5=Pakendorf |first5=Brigitte |last6=Hai |first6=Nong Van |last7=Stoneking |first7=Mark|hdl=21.11116/0000-0006-4AD8-4 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Starting from the third millennium BCE, rice farming-based agriculture spread from southern East Asia into Mainland and Insular Southeast Asia.<ref name="Bennett2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Andrew E. |last2=Liu |first2=Yichen |last3=Fu |first3=Qiaomei |date=4 December 2024 |title=Reconstructing the Human Population History of East Asia through Ancient Genomics |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/reconstructing-the-human-population-history-of-east-asia-through-ancient-genomics/0524D629660B5E43FC7094C043D54C6A |journal=Elements in Ancient East Asia |language=en |doi=10.1017/9781009246675 |isbn=978-1-009-24667-5 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This technological spread was a result of the migration of East Asian agriculturalists that carried [[Ancient Southern East Asian]] ancestry. These Neolithic farmers took two routes: an inland route into [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] carried out by [[Austroasiatic|Austroasiatic speakers]], and a maritime route that originated from [[Taiwan]] by [[Austronesian speakers]].<ref name=Stoneking2023>{{Cite journal |last1=Stoneking |first1=Mark |last2=Arias |first2=Leonardo |last3=Liu |first3=Dang |last4=Oliveira |first4=Sandra |last5=Pugach |first5=Irina |last6=Rodriguez |first6=Jae Joseph Russell B. |display-authors=4 |date=2023 |title=Genomic perspectives on human dispersals during the Holocene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=e2209475119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2209475119 |doi-access=free |issn=1091-6490 |pmc=9942792 |pmid=36649433|bibcode=2023PNAS..12009475S }}</ref><ref name=Zhang2020>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Ming |last2=Fu |first2=Qiaomei |date=2020 |title=Human evolutionary history in Eastern Eurasia using insights from ancient DNA |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=62 |pages=78–84 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2020.06.009 |pmid=32688244 |s2cid=220671047 |issn=0959-437X}}</ref><ref name=Nägele2022>{{cite journal |first1=Kathrin |last1=Nägele |first2=Maite |last2=Rivollat |first3=He |last3=Yu |first4=Ke |last4=Wang |year=2022 |title=Ancient genomic research - From broad strokes to nuanced reconstructions of the past |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=100 |issue=100 |pages=193–230 |doi=10.4436/jass.10017|pmid=36576953}}</ref> 

In 2018, researchers conducted a genetic analysis on samples taken from two ancient burial sites in [[northern Vietnam]], [[Mán Bạc]] and Núi Nấp, dating from 1,800 BCE and 100 BCE, respectively. The individuals at Mán Bạc show a mix of East Asian farmer and East Eurasian hunter-gatherer ancestry, with close genetic affinity for modern [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] groups like the [[Mlabri people|Mlabri]], the [[Nicobarese people|Nicobarese]], and the [[Cambodian people|Cambodians]], while Nui Nap projects close to present-day [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] and [[Dai people|Dai]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lipson | first1=Mark | last2=Cheronet | first2=Olivia | last3=Mallick | first3=Swapan | last4=Rohland | first4=Nadin | last5=Oxenham | first5=Marc | last6=Pietrusewsky | first6=Michael | last7=Pryce | first7=Thomas Oliver | last8=Willis | first8=Anna | last9=Matsumura | first9=Hirofumi | last10=Buckley | first10=Hallie | last11=Domett | first11=Kate | last12=Hai | first12=Nguyen Giang | last13=Hiep | first13=Trinh Hoang | last14=Kyaw | first14=Aung Aung | last15=Win | first15=Tin Tin | last16=Pradier | first16=Baptiste | last17=Broomandkhoshbacht | first17=Nasreen | last18=Candilio | first18=Francesca | last19=Changmai | first19=Piya | last20=Fernandes | first20=Daniel | last21=Ferry | first21=Matthew | last22=Gamarra | first22=Beatriz | last23=Harney | first23=Eadaoin | last24=Kampuansai | first24=Jatupol | last25=Kutanan | first25=Wibhu | last26=Michel | first26=Megan | last27=Novak | first27=Mario | last28=Oppenheimer | first28=Jonas | last29=Sirak | first29=Kendra | last30=Stewardson | first30=Kristin | last31=Zhang | first31=Zhao | last32=Flegontov | first32=Pavel | last33=Pinhasi | first33=Ron | last34=Reich | first34=David | title=Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory | journal=Science | publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) | date=2018-05-17 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.aat3188 |biorxiv=10.1101/278374 | pmc=6476732 | pmid=29773666 | volume=361 | issue=6397 | pages=92–95 | bibcode=2018Sci...361...92L }}</ref> A 2018 study by [[George van Driem]] et al. demonstrated that East Asian farmers intermixed with the native inhabitants and contrary to popular opinion, did not replace them. These farmers also shared ancestry with present-day Austroasiatic-speaking hill tribes themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McColl |first1=Hugh |last2=Racimo |first2=Fernando |last3=Vinner |first3=Lasse |last4=Demeter |first4=Fabrice |last5=Gakuhari |first5=Takashi |last6=Moreno-Mayar |first6=J. Víctor |last7=van Driem |first7=George |last8=Gram Wilken |first8=Uffe |last9=Seguin-Orlando |first9=Andaine |last10=de la Fuente Castro |first10=Constanza |last11=Wasef |first11=Sally |last12=Shoocongdej |first12=Rasmi |last13=Souksavatdy |first13=Viengkeo |last14=Sayavongkhamdy |first14=Thongsa |last15=Saidin |first15=Mohd Mokhtar |year=2018 |title=The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia |journal=Science |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) |volume=361 |issue=6397 |pages=88–92 |bibcode=2018Sci...361...88M |doi=10.1126/science.aat3628 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=29976827 |s2cid=206667111 |hdl-access=free |last16=Allentoft |first16=Morten E. |last17=Sato |first17=Takehiro |last18=Malaspinas |first18=Anna-Sapfo |last19=Aghakhanian |first19=Farhang A. |last20=Korneliussen |first20=Thorfinn |hdl=10072/383365|url=https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/5420ab64-ae26-43a7-98dc-9d08834807fc }}</ref> 

The [[Cham people]], who for over one thousand years settled in [[Champa|controlled and civilized]] present-day central and southern coastal Vietnam from around the 2nd century AD, are of Austronesian origin. The southernmost sector of Vietnam, the Mekong Delta and its surroundings were, until the 18th century, of integral yet shifting significance within the Austroasiatic [[Proto-Khmeric language|Proto-Khmer]] – and [[Khmer people|Khmer]] principalities like [[Funan]], [[Chenla]], the [[Khmer Empire]] and the Khmer kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0b-6wpalR40C&pg=PA102|page=102|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume One, Part One |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66369-4 |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |year=1999 }}</ref><ref name="Simanjuntak2017">{{cite book|first1=Truman|last1=Simanjuntak|editor1-first= Philip J.|editor1-last= Piper, Hirofumi Matsumura and David Bulbeck|editor2-first= Hirofumi |editor2-last=Matsumura |editor3-first= David |editor3-last=Bulbeck|title =New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory|chapter =The Western Route Migration: A Second Probable Neolithic Diffusion to Indonesia|publisher =ANU Press|series =terra australis|volume=45|year =2017|isbn =978-1-76046-095-2|chapter-url =http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2320/html/ch11.xhtml?referer=&page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf |title=Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia |publisher=Roger Blench |access-date=5 March 2019}}</ref>

==== Way of life ====
Situated on the southeast edge of monsoon Asia, much of ancient Vietnam enjoyed a combination of high rainfall, humidity, heat, favorable winds, and fertile soil. These natural sources combined to generate an unusually prolific growth of rice and other plants and wildlife. This region's agricultural villages held well over 90 percent of the population. The high volume of rainy season water required villagers to concentrate their labor in managing floods, transplanting rice, and harvesting. These activities produced a cohesive village life with a religion in which one of the core values was the desire to live in harmony with nature and with other people. The way of life, centered in harmony, featured many enjoyable aspects that the people held beloved, typified by not needing many material things, the enjoyment of music and poetry, and living in harmony with nature.<ref>Trần Ngọc Thêm (2016). Hệ Giá Trị Việt Nam từ Truyền thống đến Hiện Đại và con đường tới tương lai. Thành Phố Hồ Chí Minh: NXB Văn hóa – Văn nghê, pp. 153–80, 204–205. Well over 90 percent rural. Trần Ngọc Thêm, Hệ Giá Trị Việt Nam từ Truyền thống đến Hiện Đại và con đường tới tương lai, p. 138</ref>

Fishing and hunting supplemented the main rice crop. Arrowheads and spears were dipped in poison to kill larger animals such as elephants. [[Betel nuts]] were widely chewed and the lower classes rarely wore clothing more substantial than a loincloth. Every spring, a fertility festival was held which featured huge parties and sexual abandon.

=== Bronze age ===

The [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]] valley formed a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the north and west by mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the [[Red River Delta]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal= Journal of Indo-Pacific Archaeology |volume= 41 |pages= 13–21 | publisher = University of Otago|date=2017-05-24|author=Charles F. W. Higham |title= First Farmers in Mainland Southeast Asia |doi= 10.7152/jipa.v41i0.15014 |doi-access= free }}</ref> The need to have a single authority to prevent floods of the Red River, to cooperate in constructing hydraulic systems, trade exchange, and to repel invaders, led to the creation of the first legendary Vietnamese [[Sovereign state|states]] approximately 2879 BC. Ongoing research from archaeologists has suggested that the Vietnamese [[Dong Son culture|Đông Sơn culture]] were traceable back to northern Vietnam, [[Guangxi]] and [[Laos]] around 1000 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bvom.com/resource/vn_history.asp?pContent=Ancient_Time|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723192002/http://www.bvom.com/resource/vn_history.asp?pContent=Ancient_Time|url-status=dead|title=Ancient time|archive-date=July 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>Lê Huyền Thảo Uyên, 2012–13. ''Welcome to Vietnam''. International Student. West Virginia University.</ref><ref>''Handbook of Asian Education: A Cultural Perspective'', p. 95</ref>

Since around 2000 BC, stone hand tools and weapons improved extraordinarily in both quantity and variety. After this, Vietnam later became part of the [[Maritime Jade Road]], which existed for 3,000 years between 2000 BC to 1000 AD.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, {{doi|10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751}}</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref> Pottery reached a higher level of technique and decoration style. The early farming multilinguistic societies in Vietnam were mainly wet rice [[Oryza]] cultivators, which became the main staple of their diet. During the later stage of the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, the first appearance of bronze tools took place despite these tools still being rare. By about 1000 BC, bronze replaced stone for about 40 percent of edged tools and weapons, rising to about 60 percent. Here, there were not only bronze weapons, axes, and personal ornaments, but also sickles and other agriculture tools. Toward the closure of the Bronze Age, bronze accounts for more than 90 percent of tools and weapons, and there are exceptionally extravagant graves – the burial places of powerful chieftains – containing some hundreds of ritual and personal bronze artifacts, such as musical instruments, bucket-shaped ladles, and ornament daggers. After 1000 BC, the ancient peoples of Vietnam became skilled agriculturalists as they grew rice and kept buffaloes and pigs. They were also skilled fishermen and bold sailors, whose long dug-out canoes traversed the eastern sea.