Editing History of Peru (section)

==Pre-Hispanic era==
===Pre-Columbian cultures===
{{see also|Pre-Columbian Peru|Cultural periods of Peru}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 360
| caption_align     = center
| title             = [[Andean civilizations]] of Peru
| image1            = PeruCaral01.jpg
| caption1          = [[Norte Chico civilization|Norte Chico]] Caral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 kilometers from the Pacific coast.
| image2            = Chavinmuseolarco.jpg
| caption2          = [[Chavín culture|Chavin]] gold crown from the [[Cultural periods of Peru|formative epoch]], 1200–300 BCE, in the ([[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection]]), [[Nazca Lines]], created by the [[Nazca culture]].
| image4            = Condormuseolarco.jpg
| caption4          = The [[Moche culture]] is world-renowned for its pottery, pictured is a [[Andean condor|condor]] from about 300 CE.
| image5            = Ruinas-soloco chachapoyas amazonas peru.jpg
| caption5          = Walls of Soloco fortress, [[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoyas]], Peru.
| image6            = Piquillacta Archaeological site - street.jpg
| caption6          = Pikillaqta administrative center, built by the [[Wari culture]] in [[Cusco]].
| image7            = Vasija chimú caballito de totora (M. América 10788) 01.jpg
| caption7          = [[Chimú]] vessel representing a fisherman on a [[caballito de totora]] (1100–1400 CE).
| image8            = Map_of_Wari_and_Tiawaku.svg
| caption8          = [[Tiwanaku]] and [[Wari culture]] at its largest territorial extent, 950 CE.
}}

Hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside the caves of [[Pachacamac]], Telarmachay, Junin, and [[Lauricocha Province|Lauricocha]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Historia del Perú |editor=Teodoro Hampe Martínez |volume=Culturas prehispánicas |chapter=Origen de las civilizaciones andinas |author=Jorge Silva Sifuentes |publisher=Lexus |location=Barcelona |language=es |isbn=9972-625-35-4 |year=2000 |page=41}}</ref> Some of the oldest civilizations appeared [[Wiktionary:circa|circa]] 6000 BC in the coastal provinces of [[Chilca]] and [[Paracas District|Paracas]], and in the highland province of [[Callejón de Huaylas]]. Over the next three thousand years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating land, as evidenced from sites such as [[Jiskairumoko]], [[Kotosh]], and [[Huaca Prieta]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Huaca Prieta y el descubrimiento de sociedades complejas tempranas en el antiguo Perú {{!}} Ciencias.pe |url=http://www.ciencias.pe/noticias/huaca-prieta-y-el-descubrimiento-de-sociedades-complejas-tempranas-en-el-antiguo-per%C3%BA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810163126/http://www.ciencias.pe/noticias/huaca-prieta-y-el-descubrimiento-de-sociedades-complejas-tempranas-en-el-antiguo-per%C3%BA |archive-date=2020-08-10 |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=ciencias.pe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rastrean la evolución del cultivo de la papa en el Perú precolombino {{!}} ARGENPAPA |url=https://www.argenpapa.com.ar/noticia/3367-rastrean-la-evolucion-del-cultivo-de-la-papa-en-el-peru-precolombino |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=Rastrean la evolución del cultivo de la papa en el Perú precolombino {{!}} ARGENPAPA}}</ref> Cultivation of plants such as [[Maize|corn]] and [[Gossypium|cotton]] (''Gossypium barbadense'') began, as well as the domestication of animals such as the wild ancestors of the [[llama]], the [[alpaca]] and the [[guinea pig]], as seen in the 6000 BC dated [[Camelid]] relief paintings in the Mollepunko caves in [[Callalli District|Callalli]]. Inhabitants practiced [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] and [[knitting]] of cotton and wool, [[Basket weaving|basketry]], and [[pottery]].

As these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements. As a result, new societies emerged along the coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was [[Caral]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caral, la primera civilización de América, se revela experta en astronomía |url=https://www.efe.com/efe/america/cultura/caral-la-primera-civilizacion-de-america-se-revela-experta-en-astronomia/20000009-4678959 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815181353/https://www.efe.com/efe/america/cultura/caral-la-primera-civilizacion-de-america-se-revela-experta-en-astronomia/20000009-4678959 |archive-date=2022-08-15 |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=efe.com |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=EFE |first=RTVE es / |date=2019-03-29 |title=La civilización más antigua de América {{!}} RTVE |url=https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20190329/civilizacion-mas-antigua-america-comercio-habitantes-andes-amazonia/1912809.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313091101/https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20190329/civilizacion-mas-antigua-america-comercio-habitantes-andes-amazonia/1912809.shtml |archive-date=2022-03-13 |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=RTVE.es |language=es}}</ref> located in the [[Supe District|Supe Valley]] 200&nbsp;km north of Lima. It was built in approximately 2500 BC.<ref name="Mann"/>

The remnants of this civilization, also known as [[Norte Chico civilization|Norte Chico]], consists of approximately 30 pyramidal structures built up in receding terraces ending in a flat roof; some of them measuring up to 20 meters in height. Caral is regarded as one of several [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]] around the world where civilization emerged independent of other civilizations.<ref name="Mann">Charles C. Mann, "Oldest Civilization in the Americas Revealed", ''Science'', 7 January 2005, accessed 1 Nov 2010. Quote: "Almost 5,000 years ago, ancient Peruvians built monumental temples and pyramids in dry valleys near the coast, showing that urban society in the Americas is as old as the most ancient civilizations of the Old World."</ref>

In the early 21st century, [[archeologists]] discovered new evidence of ancient [[pre-Ceramic]] complex cultures: three [[irrigation]] [[canal]]s that were 5400 years old, and a possible fourth that was 6700 years old in the [[Zaña Valley]] in northern Peru. This was the evidence of community agricultural improvements that occurred at a much earlier date than previously believed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1205_051205_peru_canals.html Nicholas Bakalar, "Ancient Canals in Andes Reveal Early Agriculture"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113012927/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1205_051205_peru_canals.html |date=2018-01-13 }}, ''National Geographic News'', 5 Dec 2005, accessed 1 Nov 2010</ref>

In 2006, a research team discovered a 4200-year-old [[observatory]] at [[Buena Vista, Peru|Buena Vista]]. They believe the observatory was related to the society's reliance on agriculture and understanding of the seasons. The site includes the oldest three-dimensional sculptures found thus far in South America.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/observatory-peru.html Richard A. Lovett, "Oldest Observatory in Americas Discovered in Peru"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022001957/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/observatory-peru.html |date=2016-10-22 }}, ''National Geographic News'', 16 May 2006, accessed 1 Nov 2010</ref> In 2007, the archaeologist [[Walter Alva]] and his team found a 4000-year-old temple with painted murals at [[Ventarrón]], in the northwest [[Lambayeque Region|Lambayeque region]]. The temple contained ceremonial offerings gained from an exchange with Peruvian jungle societies, as well as those from the [[Ecuador|Ecuadorian]] coast.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Science|first=American Association for the Advancement of|date=2007-11-23|title=Oldest Mural Found in Peru|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.318.5854.1221d|journal=Science|language=en|volume=318|issue=5854|pages=1221|doi=10.1126/science.318.5854.1221d|s2cid=220089277|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Such finds show sophisticated, monumental construction requiring large-scale organization of labor, suggesting that hierarchical complex cultures arose in South America much earlier than previously thought.

Many other civilizations developed and were absorbed by the most powerful ones such as [[Kotosh]]; [[Chavín culture|Chavin]]; [[Paracas culture|Paracas]]; [[Lima]]; [[Nazca culture|Nasca]]; [[Moche (culture)|Moche]]; [[Tiwanaku]]; [[Wari culture|Wari]]; [[Lambayeque Region|Lambayeque]]; [[Chimu]] and [[Chincha Culture|Chincha]], among others. The [[Paracas culture]] emerged on the southern coast around 300 BC. They are known for their use of [[vicuña]] fibers instead of just [[cotton]] to produce fine [[textile]]s—innovations that did not reach the northern coast of Peru until centuries later. Coastal cultures such as the [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]] flourished from about 100 BC to about AD 700: the Moche produced impressive metalwork, as well as some of the finest [[pottery]] seen in the ancient world, while the Nazca are known for their textiles and the enigmatic [[Nazca lines]].

These coastal cultures eventually began to decline as a result of recurring ''[[el Niño]]'' floods and droughts. In consequence, the [[Huari culture|Huari]] and [[Tiwanaku]], who dwelt inland in the [[Andes]], became the predominant cultures of the region encompassing much of modern-day Peru and [[Bolivia]]. They were succeeded by powerful [[city-state]]s such as [[Chancay]], [[Sipán]], and [[Cajamarca]], and two empires: [[Chimor]] and [[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoyas]]. These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of [[Tillage|cultivation]], gold and silver craft, [[pottery]], [[metallurgy]], and [[knitting]]. Around 700 BC, they appear to have developed systems of social organization that were the precursors of the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] civilization.

In the highlands, both the [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco]] culture, near [[Lake Titicaca]] in both Peru and [[Bolivia]], and the [[Wari culture]], near the present-day city of [[Ayacucho]], developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD.<ref>Peru [http://countrystudies.us/peru/2.htm Pre-Inca Cultures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012150/http://countrystudies.us/peru/2.htm |date=2016-11-03 }}. Retrieved 27 July 2014.</ref>

While in the forested region of the Amazon, architectural excavations from the [[Chachapoya culture|Chachapoya]] and the [[Wari Empire|Wari]] culture allow for the evidence of complex societal presences [[Amazonas before the Inca Empire|prior to the conquest]] of Amazonas region by the Incan Empire.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |title=Newly unearthed tomb sheds light on mysterious civilization that preceded the Inca |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/06/28/newly-unearthed-tomb-sheds-light-on-mysterious-civilization-that-preceded-the-inca/ |access-date=2021-10-07 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Pre-Incan Civilizations in Peru - Historical Travel to Peru {{!}} Kuoda Travel |date=30 November 2016 |url=https://www.kuodatravel.com/how-to-travel-peru/ancient-peru/pre-incan-civilizations/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817014642/https://www.kuodatravel.com/how-to-travel-peru/ancient-peru/pre-incan-civilizations/ |archive-date=2022-08-17 |access-date=2021-10-07}}</ref>

As the Incan empire expanded, it defeated and assimilated Andean cultures like the [[Chachapoyas culture]].

Archaeologists revealed the largest mass child sacrifice with more than 140 child skeletons and 200 [[Llama]]s dating to the [[Chimú culture]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-26 |title=Exclusive: Ancient Mass Child Sacrifice May Be World's Largest |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/04/mass-child-human-animal-sacrifice-peru-chimu-science/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213091510/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/mass-child-human-animal-sacrifice-peru-chimu-science |archive-date=2022-02-13 |access-date=2020-04-26 |website=National Geographic News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=EST |first=Hannah Osborne On 3/6/19 at 2:00 PM |date=2019-03-06 |title=World's biggest mass child sacrifice discovered in Peru, with 140 killed in "heart removal" ritual |url=https://www.newsweek.com/biggist-child-sacrifice-peru-ritual-1353532 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319131139/https://www.newsweek.com/biggist-child-sacrifice-peru-ritual-1353532 |archive-date=2022-03-19 |access-date=2020-04-26 |website=Newsweek}}</ref> In September 2021, archaeologists announced the remains of eight 800-year-old bodies nearby ancient town of Chilca. Researchers think remains belong to the Chilca culture, which was apart from other pre-Hispanic cultures in the area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=800-Year-Old Tomb Discovered in Peru - Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/news/10012-210922-peru-chilca-tomb |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615124235/https://www.archaeology.org/news/10012-210922-peru-chilca-tomb |archive-date=2022-06-15 |access-date=2021-09-27 |website=archaeology.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-22 |title=Gas pipe workers find 800-year-old bodies in Peru |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210922-gas-pipe-workers-find-800-year-old-bodies-in-peru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331072741/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210922-gas-pipe-workers-find-800-year-old-bodies-in-peru |archive-date=2022-03-31 |access-date=2021-09-27 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Paul|first=Jacob|date=2021-09-24|title=Gas pipe workers uncover remains of eight people buried inside 800-year-old tomb|url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/science/1496068/gas-pipe-workers-find-bodies-tomb-peru-lima-chilca-colombia-inca-andes-archaeology-news|access-date=2021-09-27|website=Express.co.uk|language=en}}</ref>

=== Inca Empire (1438–1532) ===
{{main|Inca Empire}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 360
| caption_align     = center
| title             = [[Inca Empire]]
| image1            = Inca_Expansion.svg
| caption1          = Inca expansion (1438–1533).
| image2            = Sunset across Machu Picchu.jpg
| caption2          = View of [[Machu Picchu]] built by the Incas.
}}

The [[Inca Empire|Incas]] built the largest and most advanced empire and dynasty of [[Pre-Columbian|pre-Columbian America]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Inca |url=http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=inca |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922085729/http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=inca |archive-date=2010-09-22 |access-date=2012-03-19 |publisher=Allempires.com}}</ref> The Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] for "The Four United Regions"—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of the 16th century. It dominated a territory that included (from north to south) the southwest part of [[Ecuador]], part of [[Colombia]], the main territory of [[Peru]], the northern part of [[Chile]], and the northwest part of [[Argentina]]; and from east to west, from the southwest part of [[Bolivia]] to the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazonian forests]].

The empire originated from a tribe based in [[Cusco]], which became the capital.  [[Pachacuti]] wasn't the first Inca regent, but he was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the [[Cusco Region|Cusco]] state. His offspring later ruled an empire by both violent invasions and peaceful conquests, that is, intermarriages among the rulers of small kingdoms and the current Inca ruler.

In [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], the royal city was created to resemble a [[cougar]]; the head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as [[Sacsayhuamán]]. The empire's administrative, political, and military center was located in Cusco. The empire was divided into four quarters: [[Chinchaysuyu]], [[Antisuyu]], [[Kuntisuyu]] and [[Qullasuyu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Los cuatro suyus {{!}} Ingeniería del Imperio Inka |url=https://americanindian.si.edu/inkaroad/engineering/es/activity/los-cuatro-suyus.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715010341/https://americanindian.si.edu/inkaroad/engineering/es/activity/los-cuatro-suyus.html |archive-date=2022-07-15 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=americanindian.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Los 4 Suyos » Mapa del Chinchaysuyo, Contisuyo, Collasuyo y Antisuyo |url=https://culturainca.net/los-4-suyos/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Cultura Inca |language=es-PE}}</ref>

The official language was [[Quechua language|Quechua]], the language of a neighbouring tribe of the original tribe of the empire. Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states, and cities—were allowed to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as superior to their own. [[Inti]], the sun god, was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire. His representation on earth was the Inca ("Emperor").{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

The [[Tawantinsuyu]] was organized in dominions with a stratified society in which the ruler was the Inca.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ferrando |first=Olivio |date=2020-04-06 |title=Lista completa de emperadores incas |url=https://redhistoria.com/lista-completa-de-emperadores-incas/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Red Historia |language=es}}</ref> It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. The empire, being quite large, also had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire called the [[Inca road system|Inca Trail]], and [[chasquis]], message carriers who relayed information from anywhere in the empire to Cusco.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-13 |title=Chasquis, los mensajeros del Inca |url=https://historia.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/chasquis-mensajeros-inca_15459 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715010341/https://historia.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/chasquis-mensajeros-inca_15459 |archive-date=2022-07-15 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=historia.nationalgeographic.com.es |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Perú |first=Historia del |date=2012-09-08 |title=Los Chasquis |url=https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-autoctono/chasquis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715010624/https://historiaperuana.pe/periodo-autoctono/chasquis |archive-date=2022-07-15 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Historia del Perú |language=es}}</ref>

[[Machu Picchu]] (sometimes called the "Lost City of the Incas") is a well-preserved pre-Columbian Inca ruin located on a high mountain ridge above the [[Urubamba Valley]], about 70&nbsp;km (44&nbsp;mi) northwest of Cusco. Elevation measurements vary depending on whether the data refer to the ruin or the extremity of the mountain; Machu Picchu tourist information reports the elevation as 2,350&nbsp;m (7,711&nbsp;ft)[1]. Forgotten for centuries by the outside world (although not by locals), it was brought back to international attention by Yale archaeologist [[Hiram Bingham III]]. Bingham, often cited as the inspiration for Indiana Jones, "scientifically rediscovered" the site in 1911 and brought international attention to the site with his best-selling book ''Lost City of the Incas''. However, [[Agustín Lizárraga]] already reached the site on July 14, 1902 and left the inscription "A. Lizárraga 1902" on the Temple of Three Windows.<ref><{{Cite book |last=Heaney|first=Christopher|url=https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780230112049/cradleofgold |title=Cradle of gold: the story of Hiram Bingham, a real-life Indiana Jones and the search for Machu Picchu |date=2011 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-230-11204-9 |access-date=2023-08-08}}</ref> Peru is pursuing legal efforts to retrieve thousands of artifacts that Bingham removed from the site and sold to the current owners at Yale University.<ref>{{cite news
|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/magazine/24MachuPicchu-t.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=5ef3ca602130ba03&ex=1340337600&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|title = The Possessed|access-date = 2007-07-14|last = Lubow
|first = Arthur|date = June 24, 2007|newspaper =[[The New York Times]]|page = 10}}</ref>