Editing History of Paraguay (section)

== Colonial era ==
{{Main|Indigenous peoples in Paraguay}}

===Native peoples===
[[File:Cacique de los Indios Payaguas.jpg|thumbnail|right|A Payagua chief]]
The homeland of the Guarani people was eastward from the [[Paraguay River]], in the [[Misiones Province|Misiones]] Province of [[Argentina]] and southern [[Brazil]] and as far east as the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast near [[Rio de Janeiro]]. Their pre-Columbian population is estimated at between 300,000 and one million. With the arrival of Europeans, the population rapidly decreased due to epidemics of European diseases. The Guaraní were united only by language and cultural similarities. No political structure existed above the village level. The Guaraní were a semi-sedentary agricultural people.<ref name="Tuer">{{cite web |last1=Tuer |first1=Dot |title=Tigers and Crosses: The Transcultural Dynamics of Spanish-Guaraní relations in the Rio de la Plata |url=http://openresearch.ocadu.ca/id/eprint/1882/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206221911/http://openresearch.ocadu.ca/id/eprint/1882/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 December 2019 |website=Open Research |date=July 2013 |publisher=Thesis, University of Toronto |access-date=20 March 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Livi-Bacci">{{cite journal |last1=Livi-Bacci |first1=Massimo |title=Depopulation of Hispanic America after the Conquest |journal=Population and Development Review |date=June 2006 |volume=32 |issue=2 |page=221 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2006.00116.x |jstor=230058872 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Although the Guaraní initially resisted Spanish incursions into their lands, two characteristics influenced their early cooperation with the Spanish and missionaries. First, the Guaraní were themselves warlike, but they were threatened by hostile tribes around them and by slave raiders. The Spanish, especially Christian missionaries, afforded a degree of security to the Guaraní. Secondly, the Guaraní had a custom of exchanging women among themselves and with outsiders to cement alliances. This facilitated a proliferation of sexual relations of Guaraní women with Spanish men who had an average of 10 concubines each. In Paraguay, the [[mestizo]] offspring of Spanish/Guaraní unions had the legal rights of Spaniards. Coupled with the lack of interest by Spain and Spanish entrepreneurs in Paraguay, which produced neither mineral wealth nor agricultural exports, Paraguay became a mestizo society by 1580. Unique to Latin American countries, an indigenous language, Guaraní, is an official language alongside Spanish. The Spanish and mestizos subjected the Guaraní population to the [[encomienda]] system of forced labor after 1556 and the [[reductions]] of Christian missionaries beginning in the 1580s.<ref name="Service">{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Elman R. |title=Spanish-Guarani Relations in Early Colonial Paraguay |date=2020 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9781951519582 |pages=17–24 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/79226}} Originally published in 1954</ref><ref name="Saloman and Schwartz">{{cite book |last1=Saloman |first1=Frank |last2=Schwartz |first2=Stuart B. |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol III, South America, Part 2 |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521630764 |pages=7–14}}</ref>

The [[Gran Chaco]], a semi-arid flatland west of the Paraguay River, was the home of the [[Guaycuru peoples|Guaycurú]] peoples. The most important of the Guaycurúans in Paraguay were the [[Payaguá people|Payaguá]], a riverine people ranging for {{cvt|1600|km|mile}} up and down the Paraguay River, and the [[Mbayá]] who lived in northwest Paraguay. The Guaycuru tribes were nomadic and warlike. The Mbayá developed a horse culture in the 17th century while the Payaguá made travel up and down the Paraguay River dangerous. These tribes frequently raided the Spanish settlers and Guaraní farmers. They resisted the reductions and Christianity of the missionaries and were a threat to the Spanish and other native peoples for more than 300 years. The name of Paraguay is probably derived from the Payaguás.<ref>Steward, Julian H., ed. (1946), ''Handbook of South American Indians'', Vol. 1, ''The Marginal Tribes'', Smithsonian Institution, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., p. 215</ref><ref>Ganson, Barbara (2017), "The Evueví of Paraguay: Adaptive Strategies and Responses to Colonialism", ''The Americas'', Vol 74, Issue 52, p. 466. Downloaded from [[Project MUSE]].</ref><ref name="Gott">{{cite book |last1=Gott |first1=Richard |title=Land without Evil |date=1993 |publisher=Verso |location=London |isbn=0860913988 |page=48}}</ref>

===Early explorers and conquistadors===
{{main|Spanish colonization of the Americas}}
Much of the earliest written history of Paraguay comes from records of the Spanish colonization, beginning in 1516 with the [[Juan Díaz de Solís]]' failed expedition to the [[Río de la Plata]]. On the home voyage, after Solís' death, one of the vessels was wrecked off [[Santa Catarina Island]] near the Brazilian coast. Among the survivors was [[Aleixo Garcia]], a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] adventurer who acquired a working knowledge of the [[Guaraní language]]. Garcia was intrigued by reports of "the White King" who supposedly lived far to the west and governed cities of wealth and splendor, a reference to the [[Inca Empire]].<ref name=eec>Sacks, Richard S. "Early explorers and conquistadors".</ref>

In 1524, Garcia joined a Guaraní invasion of the Inca Empire. Garcia's group discovered [[Iguazú Falls]], crossed the [[Río Paraná]] and arrived at the site of [[Asunción]], the future capital of the country, thirteen years before it was founded. At Asunción, the Guaraní gathered an army of 2,000 men and penetrated the outer defenses of the Inca Empire on the eastern slopes of the [[Andes]]. After Garcia's murder by his Indian allies, news of the raid reached the Spanish explorers on the coast. The explorer [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]] was attracted to the [[Río Paraguay]] two years later.<ref name=eec/> Cabot was sailing to the [[Orient]] in 1526 when he heard of Garcia's exploits. He decided that the Río de la Plata might provide passage to the Pacific, and, eager to win the riches of the Incas, became the first European to explore that estuary.<ref name=eec/>{{sfn|Gott|1993|pages=ix, 16}}
[[File:Sébastien Cabot.jpg|thumbnail|right|Sebastian Cabot]]
Leaving a small force on the northern shore of the broad estuary, Cabot proceeded up the [[Río Paraná]] for about {{convert|160|km}}, where he founded a settlement he named ''Sancti Spiritu''. He continued upstream for another {{convert|800|km}}, past the junction with the [[Río Paraguay]]. When navigation became difficult, Cabot turned back, after having obtained some silver objects that the Indians said came from a land far to the west. Cabot retraced his route on the Río Paraná and entered the Río Paraguay, trading freely with the Guaraní tribes until a strong force of Agaces (Payaguá) Indians attacked them. About {{convert|40|km}} below the site of Asunción, Cabot encountered a tribe of Guaraní in possession of silver objects, perhaps some of the spoils of Garcia's treasure. Imagining that he had found the route to the riches of Peru, Cabot renamed the river [[Río de la Plata]].<ref name=eec/>

Cabot returned to Spain in 1530 and told [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]] about his discoveries. Charles gave permission to Don [[Pedro de Mendoza]] to mount an expedition to the Plata basin. The emperor also named Mendoza governor of the [[Governorate of New Andalusia]] and granted him the right to name his successor. Mendoza proved to be utterly unsuitable as a leader, and his cruelty nearly undermined the expedition. Choosing what was possibly the worst site for the first Spanish settlement in South America, in February 1536 Mendoza built a fort at a place of poor anchorage on the southern side of the Plata estuary on an inhospitable dead-level plain. Dusty in the dry season, a bog in the rains, the place was inhabited by the fierce [[Querandí]] tribe, who resisted the Spaniards. Ignoring these conditions, the Spanish named the outpost [[Buenos Aires]] (''Nuestra Señora del Buen Ayre'').<ref name=eec/>

Meanwhile, [[Juan de Ayolas]], who was Mendoza's second-in-command and who had been sent upstream to reconnoiter, returned with corn and news that Cabot's fort at Sancti Spiritu had been abandoned. Mendoza dispatched Ayolas to explore a possible route to [[Peru]]. Accompanied by [[Domingo Martínez de Irala]], Ayolas again sailed upstream until he reached a small bay on the Río Paraguay, which he named Candelaria, the present-day [[Fuerte Olimpo]]. Appointing Irala his lieutenant, Ayolas ventured into the Chaco and was never seen again.<ref name=eec/>

[[File:Estatua a juan de salazar.JPG|thumbnail|right|Monument of Juan de Salazar de Espinosa in Asuncion]]
After Mendoza unexpectedly returned to Spain, two other members of the expedition—[[Juan de Salazar de Espinosa]] and [[Gonzalo de Mendoza]]—explored the [[Río Paraguay]] and met up with Irala. Leaving him after a short time, Salazar and Gonzalo de Mendoza descended the river, stopping at a fine anchorage. They commenced building a fort on 15 August 1537, the date of the [[Feast of the Assumption]], and called it [[Asunción]] (''Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción'', in full, Our Lady Saint Mary of the Assumption).

[[File:Domingo Martínez de Irala.jpg|thumbnail|right|Domingo Martinez de Irala]]
Within 20 years, the new town had a population of about 1,500. Transcontinental shipments of silver passed through Asunción en route from Peru to Europe. Asunción became the center of a Spanish province that encompassed a large portion of central South America—''La Provincia Gigante de Indias''. Asunción also was the base for colonization of this part of South America. Spaniards moved northwestward across the Chaco to found [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz]] in present-day Bolivia; eastward to occupy the rest of present-day Paraguay; and southward along the river to re-found Buenos Aires, which its inhabitants had abandoned in 1541 to move to Asunción.<ref name=eec/>

=== Young colony ===
[[File:Paraguay - O Prov de Rio de la Plata - cum regionibus adiacentibus Tvcvman et Sta. Cruz de la Sierra - ca 1600.jpg|thumbnail|right|Map of Paraguay province around 1600 CE]]
Uncertainties over the departure of Pedro de Mendoza led Charles V to [[Promulgation|promulgate]] a ''cédula'' (decree) that was unique in colonial [[Latin America]]. The ''cédula'' granted colonists the right to elect the governor of Río de la Plata Province either if Mendoza had failed to designate a successor or if a successor had died. Two years later, the colonists elected Irala as governor. His domain included all of present-day Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, most of [[Chile]], as well as large parts of Brazil and Bolivia. In 1542 this province became part of the newly established [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], with its seat in [[Lima]]. Beginning in 1559 the [[Real Audiencia of Charcas]] based in present-day [[Sucre, Bolivia|Sucre]] controlled the province's legal affairs.<ref name=tyc>Sacks, Richard S. "The young colony". In Hanratty & Meditz.</ref>

Irala's rule set the pattern for Paraguay's internal affairs until Independence. In addition to the Spaniards, Asunción's population included immigrants, mostly men, from present-day France, Italy, Germany, England, and Portugal. This community of about 350 chose wives and [[Concubinage|concubine]]s from Guaraní women. Paraguay soon became a colony of [[mestizos]]. Continued arrivals of Europeans resulted in development of a [[Criollo people|criollo]] elite.<ref name=tyc/>

The peace that had prevailed under Irala ended in 1542 when Charles V appointed [[Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]], one of the most renowned [[conquistador]]s of his age, as governor of the province. Cabeza de Vaca arrived in Asunción after having lived for eight years among the natives of [[Spanish Florida]]. Almost immediately the Rio de la Plata Province – now consisting of 800 Europeans – split into two warring factions. Cabeza de Vaca's enemies accused him of [[cronyism]] and opposed his efforts to protect the interests of native tribes. Cabeza de Vaca tried to placate his enemies by launching an expedition into the [[Gran Chaco|Chaco]] in search of a route to Peru. This antagonized [[Gran Chaco people|Chaco tribes]] so much that they started a two-year war against the colony, which threatened its survival. In the colony's first of many revolts against the crown, the settlers seized Cabaza de Vaca, sent him back to Spain in [[fetters]], and returned the governorship to Irala.<ref name=tyc/>

A Guaraní woman from the early-colonial era, known as [[India Juliana|Juliana]], is regarded as one of the most prominent female figures in the history of Paraguay.<ref name="50mujeres">{{cite web|url=https://www.ultimahora.com/50-mujeres-que-hicieron-historia-n773305.html|title=50 mujeres que hicieron historia|date=March 4, 2014|accessdate=September 14, 2021|language=es|work=[[Última Hora (Paraguay)|Última Hora]]|location=Asunción|first=Andrés|last=Colmán Gutiérrez}}</ref><ref name="valerosa">{{cite web|url=https://www.lanacion.com.py/pais/2020/02/24/mujer-paraguaya-valerosa-desde-siempre/|language=es|accessdate=January 16, 2021|title=Mujer paraguaya, valerosa desde siempre|date=February 24, 2020|work=[[La Nación (Paraguay)|La Nación]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.com.py/edicion-impresa/suplementos/comercial/dia-de-la-mujer-paraguaya/las-mujeres-que-hicieron-historia-en-paraguay-1677945.html?outputType=amp|work=[[ABC Color]]|accessdate=January 18, 2022|title=Las mujeres que hicieron historia en Paraguay|date=February 24, 2018|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cultura.asuncion.gov.py/direccion-general/teatro-documental-huellas-petalo-metal-sube-escena-la-alianza-francesa|title=Homenaje a mujeres protagonistas de la historia paraguaya en Teatro Documental "Huellas de pétalo y metal"|date=15 November 2019|language=es|accessdate=January 18, 2022|publisher=Municipalidad de Asunción|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183050/https://cultura.asuncion.gov.py/direccion-general/teatro-documental-huellas-petalo-metal-sube-escena-la-alianza-francesa|url-status=dead}}</ref> She is famous for killing her Spaniard master or husband between 1539 and 1542 and inciting other Indigenous women to do the same.<ref name="busca">{{cite web|url=https://www.ultimahora.com/en-busca-la-india-juliana-n2917140.html|title=En busca de la India Juliana|accessdate=December 12, 2021|language=es|first=Andrés|last=Colmán Gutiérrez|location=Asunción|date=December 5, 2020|work=[[Última Hora (Paraguay)|Última Hora]]}}</ref><ref name="pensar">{{cite book|via=[[Google Books]]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RprUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT72|chapter=La india Juliana: el enemigo dentro de la casa|title=Pensar América desde sus colonias: Textos e imágenes de América colonial|first=Silvia|last=Tieffemberg|publisher=Editorial Biblos|location=Buenos Aires|year=2020|language=es|isbn=978-987-691-787-2}}</ref><ref name="ea">{{cite web|url=http://ea.com.py/blogs/relatos-sobre-la-india-juliana-entre-la-construccion-de-la-memoria-y-la-ficcion-historica/|language=es|accessdate=December 12, 2021|title=Relatos sobre la India Juliana. Entre la construcción de la memoria y la ficción histórica|first=Gabriela|last=Schvartzman|date=September 19, 2020|work=Periódico E'a|location=Asunción|publisher=Atycom}}</ref> Despite having confessed to the crime, Juliana was set free, although Cabeza de Vaca had her arrested and executed upon taking command of Asunción in 1542.<ref name="busca"/><ref name="ea"/><ref name="pensar"/>

[[File:Chaco Paraguay,cattle ranch, Presidente Hayes Province.JPG|thumbnail|right|Grazing cattle, Paraguay]]
Irala ruled without further interruption until his death in 1556. His governorship was one of the most humane in the Spanish [[New World]] at that time, and marked the transition among the settlers from conquerors to landowners. Irala maintained good relations with the Guaraní, pacified hostile tribes, explored the Chaco, and began trade relations with Peru. He encouraged beginnings of a textile industry and the introduction of cattle, which flourished in the country's fertile hills and meadows. Father [[Pedro Fernández de la Torre]] arrived on 2 April 1556, as the first bishop of Asunción, marking the official establishment of the [[Roman Catholicism in Paraguay|Roman Catholic Church in Paraguay]]. Irala presided over the construction of the [[cathedral]], two churches, three [[convent]]s, and two schools.<ref name=tyc/>

Irala eventually antagonized the native peoples. In the last years of his life he yielded to pressure from settlers and established the ''[[encomienda]]'' system, under which Spanish settlers received estates of land along with the right to the labor and produce of natives living on this land. Although ''encomenderos'' were expected to care for the spiritual and material needs of natives, the system quickly degenerated into virtual [[Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|slavery]]. 20,000 natives were divided among 320 ''encomenderos,'' which sparked a full-scale tribal revolt in 1560 and 1561.

Political instability began troubling the colony and revolts became commonplace. Given his limited resources and manpower, Irala could do little to check the raids of Portuguese marauders along his eastern borders. Irala left Paraguay prosperous for the Europeans and relatively at peace.<ref name=tyc/>

===Jesuit missions among the Guaraní===
{{main|Jesuit missions among the Guaraní}}
[[File:Réductions jésuites.png|thumbnail|right|Locations of Jesuit reductions]]
[[File:Crucifijo.Epoca Colonial. Paraguay.JPG|thumbnail|right|Colonial era crucifix]]
[[File:General view - Trinidad (Paraguay).JPG|thumbnail|right|Jesuit reduction of Trinidad]]
[[File:Jesus de Tavarangue - from above 2.JPG|thumbnail|right|Ruins of Tavarangue reduction]]
The Guaraní people of eastern Paraguay and neighboring Brazil and Argentina were in crisis in the early 17th century.  Recurrent epidemics of European diseases had reduced their population by up 50 percent and the forced labor of the encomiendas by the Spanish and mestizo colonists had made virtual slaves of many. Franciscan missionaries began establishing missions called [[reductions]] in the 1580s.<ref name="Hebblethwaite 2010 103">{{cite book |last=Hebblethwaite|first=Margaret|title=Paraguay|date=2010|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|page=103}}</ref> The first Jesuits arrived in Asunción in 1588 and founded their first mission (or reduction) of [[San Ignacio, Paraguay|San Ignacio Guazú]] in 1609. The objectives of the Jesuits were to make Christians of the Guaraní, impose European values and customs, and isolate and protect the Guaraní from European colonists and slavers.<ref name="Hebblethwaite 2010 103"/><ref name="Sarreal">{{cite book |last1=Sarreal |first1=Julia J. S. |title=The Guarani and their Missions |date=2014 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=9780804791229 |pages=20–28}}</ref>

In addition to recurrent epidemics, the Guaraní were threatened by the slave-raiding [[Bandeirantes]] from Brazil, who captured natives and sold them as slaves to work in sugar [[plantations]] or as concubines and household servants.  Having depleted native populations near [[São Paulo]], they discovered the richly populated Jesuit missions. Initially, the missions had few defenses against the slavers and thousands of Guaraní were captured and enslaved. Beginning in 1631, the Jesuits moved their missions from the [[Guayrá]] province (present day Brazil and Paraguay), about {{cvt|500|km|mile}} southwest to the three borders region of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. About 10,000 of 30,000 Guaraní in the missions chose to accompany the Jesuits. In 1641 and 1642, armed by the Jesuits, Guaraní armies defeated the Bandeirantes and ended the worst of the slave trade in their region. From this point on the Jesuit missions enjoyed growth and prosperity, punctuated by epidemics. At the peak of their importance in 1732, the Jesuits presided over 141,000 Guaraní (including a sprinkling of other peoples) in about 30 missions.<ref name="Ganson">{{cite book |last1=Ganson |first1=Barbara |title=The Guarani Under Spanish Rule in the Rio de la Plata |date=2003 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=0804736022 |pages=44–53}}</ref>

The missions are much-romanticized. "Proponents...highlight that the Jesuits protected the Indians from exploitation and preserved the Guaraní language and other aspects of indigenous culture." {{sfn|Sarreal|2014|page=6-7}} "By means of religion," wrote the 18th century philosopher [[d'Alembert]], "the Jesuits established a monarchical authority in Paraguay, founded solely on their powers of persuasion and on their lenient methods of government. Masters of the country, they rendered happy the people under their sway." [[Voltaire]] called the Jesuit missions "a triumph of humanity".<ref>{{cite book
  | last1 = Durant
  | first1 = Will
  | last2 = Durant
  | first2 = Ariel
  | title =  The Age of Reason Begins
  | series = The Story of Civilization, vol. 7
  | oclc = 1145805546
  | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ageofreasonbegin07dura_0/page/250 250]
  | publisher = Simon & Schuster
  | year = 1961
  | isbn = 978-0671013202
  | url = https://archive.org/details/ageofreasonbegin07dura_0
  | url-access = registration
  | quote = Paraguay founded solely on their powers.
  | access-date = 2006-04-22 }} the preceding paragraph is based on pages 249–50</ref> Detractors say that 'the Jesuits took away the Indians' freedom, forced them to radically change their lifestyle, physically abused them, and subjected them to disease."  Moreover, the missions were inefficient and their economic success "depended on subsidies from the Jesuit order, special protection and privileges from the Crown, and the lack of competition"{{sfn|Sarreal|2014|pages=6-7}}  The Jesuits are portrayed as "exploiters" who "sought to create a kingdom independent of the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns."<ref name="Wilde">{{cite journal |last1=Wilde |first1=Guillermo |title=Imagining Guarinis and Jesuits |journal=ReVista |date=2015 |volume=XIV |issue=3 |pages=4–5 |url=https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/imagining-guaranis-and-jesuits/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420003145/https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/imagining-guaranis-and-jesuits/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 April 2021 |access-date=24 March 2022 }}</ref>

The [[Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)|Comunero Revolt]] (1721&ndash;1735) was a serious protest by Spanish and mestizo Paraguayans against the Jesuit missions. The residents of Paraguay violently protested the pro-Jesuit government of Paraguay, Jesuit control of Guaraní labor, and what they regarded as unfair competition for the market for products such as [[yerba mate]]. Although the revolt ultimately failed and the missions remained intact, the Jesuits were expelled from institutions they had created in Asunción.<ref name="Saeger">{{cite journal |last1=Saeger |first1=James Schofield |title=Origins of the Rebellion of Paraguay |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |date=1972 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=227–229 |doi=10.1215/00182168-52.2.215 |url=http://www.jstor.com/stable/2512428 |access-date=30 March 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1756, the Guaraní protested the relocation of seven missions, losing a brief war with both the Spanish and Portuguese. The Jesuits were accused of inciting the Guaraní to rebel.{{sfn|Ganson|2003|pages=107-111}} In 1767, [[Charles III of Spain]] expelled the Jesuits from the Americas. The expulsion was part of an effort in the [[Bourbon Reforms]] to assert more Spanish control over its American colonies.<ref name="Guedea">{{cite book |last1=Guedea |first1=Virginia |title=The Oxford History of Mexico |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |page=278 |isbn=9780199731985}} Edited by Michael Meyer and William Beezley.</ref> In total, 78 Jesuits departed from the missions leaving behind 89,000 Guaraní in 30 missions. {{sfn|Sarreal|2014|page=115}}

According to historian Sarreal, most Guaraní initially welcomed the expulsion of the Jesuits. Spanish authorities made promises to Guaraní leaders and gained their support. Within two years, however, the financial situation of the former missions was deteriorating and Guaraní began leaving the missions seeking both freedom and higher wages. A decree in 1800 freed the Guaraní still in the missions from their communal obligation to labor. By 1840, the former missions were in ruins. While some Guaraní were employed outside the missions, many families were impoverished. A growing number of mestizos occupied what had formerly been mission lands. in 1848, Paraguayan President [[Carlos Antonio López]] declared that all Indians were citizens of Paraguay and distributed the last of the missions' communal lands. {{sfn|Sarreal|2014|pages=231-236}}{{sfn|Ganson|2003|pages=153-160}} The ruins of [[Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue]] have been designated [[World Heritage Sites]] by [[UNESCO]].<ref name="wdl2581">{{cite web |url={{wdl|2581}} |title=Paraguariae Provinciae Soc. Jesu cum Adiacentibg. Novissima Descriptio |language=la |trans-title=A Current Description of the Province of the Society of Jesus in Paraguay with Neighboring Areas |work=World Digital Library |date=1732 }}</ref>

===Colonial decline===
[[File:Carte du paraguay et del pays voisins Echelle 1756.jpg|thumbnail|right|Map of Paraguay and surrounding regions, 1756 CE]]
The Comuneros revolt was symptomatic of the province's decline. Since the re-founding of Buenos Aires in 1580, the steady deterioration in the importance of Asunción contributed to growing political instability within the province. In 1617, the [[Governorate of the Río de la Plata]] was divided into two smaller provinces: [[Governorate of Paraguay]], with Asunción as its capital, and Río de la Plata, with headquarters in Buenos Aires. With this decision, Asunción lost control of the Río de la Plata estuary and became dependent on Buenos Aires for maritime shipping. In 1776, the crown created the [[Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata]]; Paraguay, which had been subordinate to [[Lima]], now became a provincial outpost of Buenos Aires. Located at the periphery of the empire, Paraguay served as a buffer state. The Portuguese blocked Paraguayan territorial expansion in the north, native tribes blocked it – until their expulsion – in the south, and the Jesuits blocked it in the east.

The [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] and the [[Real Audiencia of Charcas]] had nominal authority over Paraguay, while Madrid largely neglected the colony. Madrid preferred to avoid the effort and expense of governing and defending a remote colony that had proved to have little value. The governors of Paraguay had no royal troops at their disposal and were instead dependent on a colonist [[militia]] . Paraguayans were forced into the colonial militia to serve extended tours of duty, contributing to a severe labor shortage. Paraguayans claimed that the 1537 ''cédula'' gave them the right to choose and depose their governors. The colony, and in particular the Asunción municipal council (''[[cabildo (council)|cabildo]]''), earned a reputation for being in continual revolt against the Crown.

As a result of its distance from the rest of the empire, Paraguay had little control over important decisions that affected its economy. Spain appropriated much of Paraguay's wealth through burdensome taxes and regulations. [[Yerba maté]], for instance, was practically priced out of the regional market. At the same time, Spain was using most of its wealth from the [[New World]] to import manufactured goods from the more industrialized countries of Europe, notably [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Spanish merchants borrowed from British merchants to finance their purchases; merchants in Buenos Aires borrowed from Spain; those in Asunción borrowed from the ''[[porteño]]s'' (residents of Buenos Aires), and Paraguayan ''peones'' (landless peasants in debt to landlords) bought goods on credit. The result was dire poverty in Paraguay and an increasingly impoverished empire.