Editing History of Canada (section)

==Indigenous peoples==
{{See also|Timeline of Canadian history|List of years in Canada}}

===Indigenous societies ===
{{Main|Indigenous peoples in Canada}}
{{further|Technological and industrial history of Canada#Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)}}
[[File:Glacial lakes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Great Lakes]] are estimated to have been formed at the end of the [[last glacial period]] (about 10,000 years ago), when the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] receded.]]
[[List of archaeological periods (North America)|Archeological]] and [[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous genetic]] evidence indicates that North and South America were the last continents into which [[early human migrations|humans migrated]].<ref name="Ph.D.2011">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=David M. |last1=Lawrence |title=Beringia and the Peopling of the New World |editor-first=Alfred J. |editor-last=Andrea Ph.D. |encyclopedia=World History Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LEqaIGsT8SsC&pg=PA99 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-930-6 |page=99}}</ref> During the [[Wisconsin glaciation]], which began 100,000–75,000 years ago and ended about 11,00 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move gradually across the Bering land bridge ([[Beringia]]), from [[Siberia]] into northwest [[North America]].<ref name=Goebel>{{cite journal |title=The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas |first1=Ted |last1=Goebel |first2=Michael R. |last2=Waters |first3=Dennis H. |last3=O'Rourke |url=http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/cfsa-publications/Science2008.pdf  |year=2008 |doi=10.1126/science.1153569 |access-date=February 5, 2010 |pmid=18339930 |volume=319 |issue=5869 |journal=Science |pages=1497–502 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1497G|citeseerx=10.1.1.398.9315 |s2cid=36149744 }}</ref> At that point, they were blocked by the [[Laurentide ice sheet]], then covering most of Canada, confining them to Alaska and the Yukon for thousands of years.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Graeme |last1=Wynn |title=Canada And Arctic North America: An Environmental History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA20 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-437-0 |page=20}}<br />{{cite book|first1=Laurel |last1=Sefton MacDowell|title=An Environmental History of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM9TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|year=2012|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-2104-9|page=14}}<br />{{cite journal |first1=Guy |last1=Gugliotta |title=When Did Humans Come to the Americas? |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/when-did-humans-come-to-the-americas-4209273/?all |journal=Smithsonian Magazine |date=February 2013 |access-date=June 25, 2015 }}</ref> The exact dates and routes of the [[peopling of the Americas]] are the subject of an ongoing debate.<ref name="Madsen2004">{{cite book |first1=Daryl W. |last1=Fedje |display-authors=etal |chapter=Late Wisconsin Environments and Archaeological Visibility on the Northern Northwest Coast |editor-first=David B.  |editor-last=Madsen |title=Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2EVCRfBzAC&pg=PA125 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Utah Press |isbn=978-0-87480-786-8 |page=125}}</ref> 

About 16,000 years ago, the [[Last Glacial Maximum|glacial melt]] allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first1=E. James |last1=Dixon |title=Archaeology and the First Americans |editor-first1=Bruce E. |editor-last1=Johansen |editor-first2=Barry M. |editor-last2=Pritzker |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA83 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-818-7 |page=83 |editor-link1=Bruce E. Johansen}}</ref> The [[Haida Gwaii]] islands, [[Old Crow Flats]], and the [[Bluefish Caves]] contain some of the earliest [[Paleo-Indians|Paleo-Indian]] archeological sites in Canada.<ref name="DirectorPresident1997">{{cite book |first1=Norman |last1=Herz |first2=Ervan G. |last2=Garrison |title=Geological Methods for Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YSPkmV_mRvkC&pg=PA125 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802511-5 |page=125}}</ref><ref name="CarlsonBona1996">{{cite book |first1=Martin P.R. |last1=Mange |chapter=Comparative Analysis of Microblade Cores from Haida Gwaii |editor-first1=Roy L. |editor-last1=Carlson |editor-first2=Luke Robert |editor-last2=Dalla Bona |title=Early Human Occupation in British Columbia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KT4A5dHuiSgC&pg=PA152 |year=1996 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0535-3 |page=152}}</ref><ref name="E.Ames1998">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Vaugh M. Jr |last1=Bryant |title=Pre-Clovis |editor-last1=Gibbon |editor-first1=Guy |display-editors=etal |encyclopedia=Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: an Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0u2y_SVnmoC&pg=PA682 |year=1998 |publisher=Garland |isbn=978-0-8153-0725-9 |page=682}}</ref> Ice Age [[hunter-gatherer]]s of this period left [[lithic flake]] fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals.

The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago). Climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns; however, the receding glacial ice sheets still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes of meltwater.<ref name="icaage">{{cite book |last1=Imbrie |first1=John |first2=Katherina Palmer |last2=Imbrie |title=Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery |year=1979 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-44075-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIxRp9fRDGwC}}</ref> Most population groups during the [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]]s were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers.<ref name=Fiedel/> However, individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally; thus with the passage of time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization (i.e.: [[Paleo-Arctic tradition|Paleo-Arctic]], [[Plano cultures|Plano]] and [[Maritime Archaic]] traditions).<ref name=Fiedel>{{cite book |first1=Stuart J. |last1=Fiedel |title=Prehistory of the Americas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yrhp8H0_l6MC&pg=PR5 |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42544-5 |page=5}}</ref>

The [[Woodland period|Woodland cultural period]] dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and is applied to the [[Ontario]], Quebec, and [[Maritimes|Maritime regions]].<ref name=Eras>{{cite web|title=C. Prehistoric Periods (Eras of Adaptation) |publisher=The University of Calgary (The Applied History Research Group) |year=2000 |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firstnations/periods.html |access-date=April 15, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412205024/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firstnations/periods.html |archive-date=April 12, 2010 }}</ref> The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-stage inhabitants. The [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians|Laurentian-related people]] of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.<ref name="prepre">{{cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |title=People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory |year=1992 |publisher=[[HarperCollins|Harper Collins]] |isbn=978-0-321-01457-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleofearthint09edfaga }}
</ref>
{{multiple image
|image1=Laurel complex map HRoe 2010.jpg
|caption1=[[Laurel complex]] in present day [[northern Ontario]] and [[Manitoba]]
|alt1=
|image2=Pt Peninsula and Saugeen complexes map HRoe 2010.jpg
|caption2=Complexes in present day [[southern Ontario]] and southwestern [[Quebec]]
|alt2=
|footer=Local cultural expressions of the [[Hopewell tradition]] during the [[Woodland period#Middle Woodland|Middle Woodland period]]
|align=left
|total_width=330
}}
The [[Hopewell tradition]] is an Indigenous culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the [[Hopewell Exchange System]] connected cultures and societies to the peoples on the Canadian shores of [[Lake Ontario]].<ref name="Lockard2010">{{cite book |first1=Craig A. |last1=Lockard |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |volume=I: to 1500 |edition=second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4VOYN0dmqMC&pg=PA221 |year=2010 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4390-8535-6 |page=221}}</ref> Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the [[Point Peninsula complex|Point Peninsula]], [[Saugeen complex|Saugeen]], and [[Laurel complex]]es.<ref name="Hamilton2010">{{cite book |first1=Michelle |last1=Hamilton |title=Collections and Objections: Aboriginal Material Culture in Southern Ontario |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3Wa8KkpJBMC&pg=PA24 |year=2010 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3754-5 |page=24}}</ref>

The [[Eastern Woodlands tribes|eastern woodland areas]] of what became Canada were home to the [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] and [[Iroquois|Iroquoian]] peoples. The Algonquian language is believed to have originated in the western plateau of Idaho or the plains of Montana and moved with migrants eastward,<ref name="FrancisFrancis2009a">{{cite book |first1=R. Douglas |last1=Francis |first2=Richard |last2=Jones |first3=Donald B. |last3=Smith |title=Journeys: A History of Canada |edition=second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PA11 |year=2009 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-17-644244-6 |page=11}}</ref> eventually extending in various manifestations all the way from [[Hudson Bay]] to what is today [[Nova Scotia]] in the east and as far south as the [[Tidewater region of Virginia]].<ref name="Brandon2012">{{cite book |first1=William |last1=Brandon |title=The Rise and Fall of North American Indians: From Prehistory through Geronimo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRsK40MuAY8C&pg=PA236 |year=2012 |publisher=Roberts Rinehart |isbn=978-1-57098-453-2 |page=236}}</ref>

Speakers of [[eastern Algonquian languages]] included the [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] and [[Abenaki]] of the Maritime region of Canada and likely the extinct [[Beothuk]] of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]].<ref name="Marshall1996">{{cite book |first1=Ingeborg |last1=Marshall |title=History and Ethnography of the Beothuk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA437 |year=1996 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-6589-0 |page=437}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Maliseet and Mi'kmaq Languages |url=http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/aboriginal_affairs/wolastoqiyik/languages.html |publisher=Government of New Brunswick |website=Aboriginal Affairs |access-date=January 22, 2016|date=June 3, 2010 }}</ref> The [[Ojibwa]] and other [[Ojibwe language|Anishinaabe speakers]] of the [[central Algonquian languages]] retain an oral tradition of having moved to their lands around the western and central [[Great Lakes]] from the sea, likely the Atlantic coast.<ref name="JOHANSENPRITZKER2007">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Barry M. |last1=Pritzker |title=Pre-Contact Indian History |editor-first1=Bruce E. |editor-last1=Johansen |editor-first2=Barry M. |editor-last2=Pritzker |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA10 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-818-7 |page=10}}</ref> According to oral tradition, the Ojibwe formed the [[Council of Three Fires]] in 796 CE with the [[Odawa people|Odawa]] and the [[Potawatomi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Background 1: Ojibwa history |website=Anishinaabe Arcs |url=http://csdt.rpi.edu/na/arcs/background1.html |publisher=Department of Science and Technology Studies · The Center for Cultural Design |year=2003 |access-date=April 15, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831033014/http://csdt.rpi.edu/na/arcs/background1.html |archive-date=August 31, 2011 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>

The Five Nations of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were centred from at least 1000 CE in northern New York, but their influence extended into what is now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec. They spoke varieties of Iroquoian languages.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Peter G. |last1=Ramsden |date=August 28, 2015 |title=Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |edition=online |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/iroquois |access-date=January 16, 2016}}</ref> [[Iroquois#Formation of the League|The Iroquois Confederacy]], according to oral tradition, was formed in 1142 CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johansen |first1=Bruce E. |year=1995 |title=Dating the Iroquois Confederacy |journal=Akwesasne Notes |series=New Series |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=62–63 |url=http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/DatingIC.html |access-date=October 1, 2014}}</ref><ref name="JohansenMann2000">{{cite book |editor-first1=Bruce Elliot |editor-last1=Johansen |editor-first2=Barbara Alice |editor-last2=Mann |title=Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zibNDBchPkMC&pg=PR14 |year=2000 |publisher=Greenwood  |isbn=978-0-313-30880-2 |page=14}}</ref> In addition, there were other Iroquoian-speaking peoples in the area, including the [[St. Lawrence Iroquoian]]s, the Erie, and others.
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=330|align=left| image2 = Algonquian langs.png|caption2=Pre-Columbian distribution of [[Algonquian languages]] in North America.| image1 = Na-Dene langs.png|caption1=Pre-Columbian distribution of [[Na-Dene languages]] in North America.
}}
On the [[Great Plains]], the [[Cree]] or ''Nēhilawē'' (who spoke a closely related Central Algonquian language, the [[plains Cree language]]) depended on the vast herds of bison to supply food and many of their other needs.<ref name="Rees2004">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Opie |chapter=Ecology and Environment |editor-first=Amanda |editor-last=Rees |title=The Great Plains Region |volume=4 |series=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional Cultures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0MpNai3xdMC&pg=PA76 |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood  |isbn=978-0-313-32733-9 |page=76}}</ref> To the northwest were the peoples of the [[Na-Dene languages]], which include the [[Athapaskan languages|Athapaskan-speaking peoples]] and the [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]], who lived on the islands of southern Alaska and northern [[British Columbia]]. The Na-Dene language group is believed to be linked to the [[Yeniseian languages]] of Siberia.<ref name=BENGTSON/> The [[Dene]] of the western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America.<ref name="BENGTSON">{{cite journal |last1=Bengtson|first1=John D. |year=2008 |url=http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/dene_gr.pdf |title=Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages |journal=Aspects of Comparative Linguistics |volume=3 |pages=45–118 |access-date=April 11, 2010}}</ref>

The [[British Columbia Interior|Interior of British Columbia]] was home to the [[Salishan languages|Salishan language]] groups such as the [[Secwepemc|Shuswap (Secwepemc)]], [[Okanagan people|Okanagan]] and southern Athabaskan language groups, primarily the [[Dakelh]] (Carrier) and the [[Chilcotin people|Tsilhqot'in]].<ref name=Archives/> The inlets and valleys of the [[British Columbia Coast]] sheltered large, distinctive populations, such as the [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Kwakwaka'wakw]] and [[Nuu-chah-nulth people|Nuu-chah-nulth]], sustained by the region's abundant salmon and shellfish.<ref name=Archives/> These peoples developed [[complex society|complex cultures]] dependent on the [[western red cedar]] that included wooden houses, both seagoing whaling and war canoes, elaborately carved [[potlatch]] items, and [[totem poles]].<ref name=Archives>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/exhibits/timemach/galler07/frames/wc_peop.htm |publisher=B.C. Archives |title=First Nations – People of the Northwest Coast |year=1999 |access-date=April 11, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314102800/http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/exhibits/timemach/galler07/frames/wc_peop.htm |archive-date=March 14, 2010 }}</ref>

In the [[Arctic Archipelago]], the distinctive [[Paleo-Eskimo]]s known as [[Dorset culture|Dorset peoples]], whose culture has been traced back to around 500 BCE, were replaced by the ancestors of today's [[Inuit]] by 1500 CE.<ref name="WurmMühlhäusler1996">{{cite book |editor-first1=Stephen Adolphe |editor-last1=Wurm |editor-first2=Peter |editor-last2=Mühlhäusler |editor-first3=Darrell T. |editor-last3=Tyron |title=Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Maps |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA1065 |year=1996 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-013417-9 |page=1065}}</ref> This transition is supported by archeological records and [[Inuit mythology]] that tells of having driven off the ''Tuniit'' or 'first inhabitants'.<ref name="Whitty2010">{{cite book |first1=Julia |last1=Whitty |title=Deep Blue Home: An Intimate Ecology of Our Wild Ocean |url=https://archive.org/details/deepbluehomeinti0000whit |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-547-48707-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/deepbluehomeinti0000whit/page/154 154]}}</ref> [[Inuit#Traditional law|Inuit traditional laws]] are anthropologically different from [[Western law]]. ''[[Custom (law)|Customary law]]'' was non-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the [[Law of Canada|Canadian legal system]].<ref name=tpm>{{cite web|url=http://nac.nu.ca/OnlineBookSite/vol2/introduction.html |title=Tirigusuusiit, Piqujait and Maligait: Inuit Perspectives on Traditional Law |publisher=Nunavut Arctic College |year=1999 |access-date=August 28, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221063926/http://nac.nu.ca/OnlineBookSite/vol2/introduction.html |archive-date=February 21, 2011 }}</ref>

===European contact===
{{Further|European colonization of the Americas}}
[[File:L'AnseAuxMeadowsModel.jpg|right|thumb|A model of the Norse settlement at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] on the island of Newfoundland. The Norse settlement dates to {{circa|1000 CE}}.]]
[[Viking|The Norse]], who had settled [[Greenland]] and [[Iceland]], arrived around 1000 CE and built a small settlement at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] at the northernmost tip of [[Newfoundland]] (carbon dating estimate 990 – 1050 CE).<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008b">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Birgitta |last1=Wallace |title=L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site |editor-first2=Linda S. |editor-last2=Cordell|editor-first3=Kent |editor-last3=Lightfoot|editor-first1=Francis P. |editor-last1=McManamon|editor-first4=George R. |editor-last4=Milner |encyclopedia=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82 |year=2009 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-33184-8 |pages=82}}</ref> L'Anse aux Meadows, the only confirmed Norse site in North America outside of Greenland, is also notable for its connection with the attempted settlement of [[Vinland]] by [[Leif Erikson]] around the same period or, more broadly, with [[Norse colonization of the Americas|Norse exploration of the Americas]].<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008b"/><ref name="Kristinsson2010">{{cite book|first1=Axel |last1=Kristinsson|title=Expansions: Competition and Conquest in Europe Since the Bronze Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9s2uzr47M-cC&pg=PA216|year=2010|publisher=ReykjavíkurAkademían|isbn=978-9979-9922-1-9|page=216}}</ref>
[[File:Cabotstamp.jpg|thumb|A commemorative stamp from 1947, depicting [[John Cabot]] aboard the ''[[Matthew (1497 ship)|Matthew]]'' off [[Cape Bonavista]] during his 1497 voyage]]
Under [[letters patent]] from King [[Henry VII of England]], the Italian [[John Cabot]] became the first European known to have landed in Canada after the [[Viking Age]]. Records indicate that on June 24, 1497, he sighted land at a northern location believed to be somewhere in the [[Atlantic provinces]].<ref name="Mills2003">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=William James |last1=Mills |title=Cabot, John (1450-ca. 1498) |encyclopedia=Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=1, A-L |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYdBH4dOOM4C&pg=PA123 |year=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-422-0 |page=123}}</ref> Official tradition deemed the first landing site to be at [[Cape Bonavista]], Newfoundland, although other locations are possible.<ref name="Wilson1996">{{cite book |first1=Ian |last1=Wilson |title=John Cabot and the Matthew |url=https://archive.org/details/johncabotmatthew0000wils |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=Breakwater Books |isbn=978-1-55081-131-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/johncabotmatthew0000wils/page/34 34]}}</ref> After 1497 Cabot and his son [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]] continued to make other voyages to find the [[Northwest Passage]], and other explorers continued to sail out of England to the New World, although the details of these voyages are not well recorded.<ref name="Grimbly2013">{{cite book|editor-first=Shona |editor-last=Grimbly |chapter=The Northwest Passage |title=Atlas of Exploration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpEuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |year=2013|orig-year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-97006-2 |page=41}}</ref>
 
Based on the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]] claimed it had territorial rights in the area visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 CE.<ref>{{cite web |first1=James |last1=Hiller |first2=Jenny |last2=Higgins |title=John Cabot's voyage of 1498 |url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/cabot1498.html |publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland |website=Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site |year=2013 |orig-year=1997 |access-date=January 25, 2016}}</ref> However, Portuguese explorers like [[João Fernandes Lavrador]] would continue to visit the north Atlantic coast, which accounts for the appearance of "[[Labrador]]" on maps of the period.<ref name="Diffie1977">{{cite book |first1=Bailey Wallys |last1=Diffie |title=Foundations of the Portuguese Empire: 1415–1580 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA464 |year=1977 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-0782-2 |page=464}}</ref> In 1501 and 1502 the [[Corte-Real family|Corte-Real]] brothers explored Newfoundland (Terra Nova) and Labrador claiming these lands as part of the [[Portuguese Empire]].<ref name="Diffie1977" /><ref name="RorabaughCritchlow2004">{{cite book |first1=William J. |last1=Rorabaugh |first2=Donald T. |last2=Critchlow |first3=Paula C. |last3=Baker |title=America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL_6X5zWOokC&pg=PA11 |year=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1189-7 |page=11}}</ref> In 1506, King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters.<ref name="Sauer1975">{{cite book |first1=Carlo |last1=Sauer |chapter=The Atlantic Coast (1520–1526) |title=Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Europeans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWXU6sjN9ZUC&pg=PA49 |year=1975|orig-year=1971 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02777-0 |page=49}}</ref> [[João Álvares Fagundes]] and [[Pero de Barcelos]] established fishing outposts in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521 CE; however, these were later abandoned, with the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese colonizers]] focusing their efforts on South America.<ref>{{cite book |title=Chronology of World History: a Calendar of Principal Events from 3000 BC to AD 1973 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1975 |edition=2nd |page=387 |isbn=978-0-87471-765-5 |last1=Freeman-Grenville |first1=Greville Stewart Parker}}</ref> The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear and controversial.<ref name="Rompkey2005">{{cite book |first1=Bill |last1=Rompkey |title=The Story of Labrador |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkwIotsOMUAC&pg=PA20 |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7121-1 |page=20}}</ref><ref name=explorationp>{{cite web |first1=J.K. |last1=Hiller |title=The Portuguese Explorers |url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/portuguese.html |publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland |website=Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site |date=August 2004 |orig-year=1998 |access-date=June 27, 2010}}</ref>