Editing Hindustani language (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Hindustani}}{{See also|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}
Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indo-Aryan]] ''[[apabhraṃśa]]'' [[vernacular]]s of present-day [[North India]] in the 7th–13th centuries.<ref name="Brill1993">{{cite book|title=First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936|year=1993|publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]]|language=en|isbn=9789004097964|page=1024|quote=Whilst the Muhammadan rulers of India spoke Persian, which enjoyed the prestige of being their court language, the common language of the country continued to be Hindi, derived through Prakrit from Sanskrit. On this dialect of the common people was grafted the Persian language, which brought a new language, Urdu, into existence. Sir George Grierson, in the Linguistic Survey of India, assigns no distinct place to Urdu, but treats it as an offshoot of Western Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="Mody2008">{{cite book |last1=Mody |first1=Sujata Sudhakar |title=Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920 |date=2008 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |page=7 |language=en |quote=...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).}}</ref> Hindustani emerged as a contact language around the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]] and [[Saharanpur]]), a result of the increasing linguistic diversity that occurred during the [[Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Britannica2000"/><ref>{{cite book|editor=Kathleen Kuiper|year=2011 |title=The Culture of India|publisher=[[Rosen Publishing]]|language=en|isbn=9781615301492|page=80|quote=Hindustani began to develop during the 13th century AD in and around the Indian cities of Dehli and Meerut in response to the increasing linguistic diversity that resulted from Muslim hegemony.}}</ref> [[Amir Khusrow]], who lived in the thirteenth century during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] period in North India, used these forms (which was the ''lingua franca'' of the period) in his writings and referred to it as ''Hindavi'' ({{langx|fa|ھندوی|lit=of ''Hindus'' or Indians}}).<ref name="brown2008">{{Citation |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |author1=Keith Brown |author2=Sarah Ogilvie |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |publisher=Elsevier |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |quote=Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi[.]}}</ref><ref name="Kesavan1997"/> By the end of the century, the military exploits of [[Alauddin Khalji]], introduced the language in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region, which led to the development of its southern dialect [[Deccani language|Deccani]], which was promoted by Muslim rulers in the Deccan.<ref name="Prakāśaṃ">{{cite book|last1=Prakāśaṃ|first1=Vennelakaṇṭi|title=Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories|date=2008|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788184242799|page=186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WroLC__7EUC&pg=PA185|quote=In Deccan the dialect developed and flourished independently. It is here that it received, among others, the name Dakkhni. The kings of many independent kingdoms such as Bahmani, Ādil Shahi and Qutb Shahi that came into being in Deccan patronized the dialect. It was elevated as the official language.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Mustafa|2008|p=185}} The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan]] dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi,<ref name=Gat>{{cite book|last1=Gat|first1=Azar|author-link1=Azar Gat|last2=Yakobson|first2=Alexander|author-link2=Alexander Yakobson|title=Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HK8TulTJpGAC&pg=PA126|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-00785-7|page=126}}</ref> was succeeded by the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1526 and preceded by the [[Ghorid dynasty]] and [[Ghaznavid Empire]] before that.

Ancestors of the language were known as ''Hindui'', ''Hindavi'', ''Zabān-e [[Hindustan|Hind]]'' ({{Translation|'Language of India'}}), ''Zabān-e [[Hindustan]]'' ({{Translation|'Language of Hindustan'}}), ''Hindustan ki boli'' ({{Translation|'Language of Hindustan'}}), [[Rekhta]], and Hindi.<ref name="siddiqi1994">{{Citation | title=Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts | author=Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi | year=1994 | publisher=University of Wisconsin | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnrTAAAAMAAJ | quote=... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ...}}</ref><ref name="pulsipher2005">{{Citation | title=World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives |author1=Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher |author2=Alex Pulsipher |author3=Holly M. Hapke | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-7167-1904-5 | publisher=Macmillan | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfNaSNNAppQC | quote=... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the ''lingua franca'' of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ...}}</ref> Its regional dialects became known as ''Zabān-e Dakhani'' in southern India, ''Zabān-e Gujari'' ({{Translation|'Language of Gujars'}}) in Gujarat, and as ''Zabān-e Dehlavi'' or Urdu around Delhi. It is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]], deriving its base from the [[Central Indo-Aryan languages#Languages|Western Hindi]] dialect of the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]] and [[Saharanpur]]) known as [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]]—the contemporary form being classed under the umbrella of [[Old Hindi]].<ref name="Elsevier2010">{{cite book |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-087775-4 |page=497 |language=en |quote=Hindustani is a Central Indo-Aryan language based on Khari Boli (Khaṛi Boli). Its origin, development, and function reflect the dynamics of the sociolinguistic contact situation from which it emerged as a colloquial speech. It is inextricably linked with the emergence and standardisation of Urdu and Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="WilliamsMalhotraHawley2018">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Tyler |last2=Malhotra |first2=Anshu |last3=Hawley |first3=John S. |title=Text and Tradition in Early Modern North India |date=3 January 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-909167-6 |language=en|quote=These traditions intensively fed into each other and can be perceived as forming a 'super-tradition', which with a modern, heuristic term is called Old Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="Britannica2000"/>

Although the Mughals were of [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] (''Gurkānī'') [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] descent,<ref name="Thackston">{{Citation |title=The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor |publisher=Modern Library Classics |isbn=978-0-375-76137-9 |date=10 September 2002 |author=Zahir ud-Din Mohammad |editor=Thackston, Wheeler M. |quote=Note: ''Gurkānī'' is the Persianized form of the Mongolian word "kürügän" ("son-in-law"), the title given to the dynasty's founder after his marriage into [[Genghis Khan]]'s family. |url= https://archive.org/details/babarinizam00babu }}</ref> they were [[Persianization|Persianised]], and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after [[Babur]].<ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref><ref name="Britannica">''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty Timurid Dynasty]", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation: "Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia. ... Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture.")</ref><ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia = The Columbia Encyclopedia |title = Timurids |url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html |edition = Sixth |publisher = [[Columbia University]] |location = New York City |access-date = 8 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061205073939/http://bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html |archive-date = 5 December 2006 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' article: [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26937/Islamic-world Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids], Online Edition, 2007.</ref> Mughal patronage led to a continuation and reinforcement of Persian by Central Asian [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] rulers in the Indian Subcontinent,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Clinton|author-link1=Clinton Bennett|last2=Ramsey|first2=Charles M.|title=South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EQJHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|year=2012|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-5127-8|page=18}}</ref> since Persian was also patronized by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate who laid the basis for the introduction and use of Persian in the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laet|first=Sigfried J. de Laet|author-link=Sigfried J. de Laet|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA734|year=1994|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-102813-7|page=734}}</ref>

Hindustani began to take shape as a Persianised vernacular during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526 AD) and [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1858 AD) in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Taj"/> Hindustani retained the [[Hindustani grammar|grammar]], as well as the [[Hindustani vocabulary|core Sanskritic and Prakritic vocabulary]], of the local Indian language of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab called [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]].<ref name="Britannica2000">{{cite book |title=Students' Britannica India |date=2000 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |page=299 |language=en |quote=Hindustani developed as lingua franca in the medieval ages in and around Delhi, Meerut and Saharanpur because of the interaction between the speakers of ''Khariboli'' (a dialect developed in this region out of Shauraseni Prakrit) and the speakers of Persian , Turkish , and various dialects of Arabic who migrated to North India. Initially it was known by various names such as ''Rekhta'' (mixed), ''Urdu'' (language of the camp) and ''Hindvi'' or ''Hindustani'' (language of Hindustan). Though ''Khariboli'' supplied its basic vocabulary and grammar, it borrowed quite a lot of words from Persian and Arabic}}</ref><ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Taj">{{cite web |last1=Taj |first1=Afroz |title=About Hindi-Urdu |url=http://www.unc.edu/~taj/abturdu.htm |publisher=[[The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] |access-date=30 June 2019 |language=en |date=1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419162950/http://www.unc.edu/~taj/abturdu.htm |archive-date=19 April 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Strnad2013">{{cite book |last1=Strnad |first1=Jaroslav |title=Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindī: Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabīr vānī Poems from Rājasthān |date=2013 |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-25489-3 |language=en |quote=Quite different group of nouns occurring with the ending ''-a'' in the dir. plural consists of words of Arabic or Persian origin borrowed by the Old Hindi with their Persian plural endings.}}</ref><ref name="Grajcar2024">{{cite web |last1=Grajcar |first1=Rhône |title=In Delhi, an Urdu Wala, and a 'Dying' Language's Quiet, Vibrant Life |url=https://mangoprism.com/in-delhi-an-urdu-wala-and-a-dying-languages-quiet-vibrant-life/ |publisher=Mangoprism |access-date=15 October 2024 |language=en |date=6 February 2024 |quote=But those who make this claim focus more on the fate of Urdu in its place of origin, the Doab plains between the Ganga and Jamuna rivers of Northern India.}}</ref> However, as an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic loanwords, and as Mughal conquests grew it spread as a lingua franca across much of northern India; this was a result of the [[Hindu-Muslim unity|contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures]] in Hindustan that created a composite [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb]].<ref name="Dhulipala2000"/><ref name="Rekhta2020"/><ref name="IJSW1943"/><ref name="Farooqi2012">{{cite book |last1=Farooqi |first1=M. |title=Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari |date=2012 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|isbn=978-1-137-02692-7 |language=en |quote=Historically speaking, Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims.}}</ref> The language was also known as ''[[Rekhta]]'', or 'mixed', which implies that the Sanskritic and Prakritic vocabulary base of Old Hindi was mixed with Persian loanwords.<ref name="Strnad2013"/><ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="MatthewsShackleHusain1985"/><ref name="Britannica2000"/><ref>{{ELL2|Hindustani}}</ref><ref name="Ayres2009">{{cite book|author=Alyssa Ayres|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre|url-access=limited|date=23 July 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-51931-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre/page/n32 19]–}}</ref> Written in the [[Urdu alphabet|Perso-Arabic]], [[Devanagari]],<ref name="mcgregor_912">{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|author-link=Sheldon Pollock|title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xowUxYhv0QgC&pg=RA1-PA912|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4|page=912}}</ref> and occasionally [[Kaithi]] or [[Gurmukhi]] scripts,<ref name="Wayback Machine">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/workshop2012/bangha_rekhta.pdf|title=Rekhta: Poetry in Mixed Language, The Emergence of Khari Boli Literature in North India|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|access-date=23 April 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328003510/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/workshop2012/bangha_rekhta.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2016}}</ref> it remained the primary lingua franca of northern India for the next four centuries, although it varied significantly in vocabulary depending on the local language. Alongside Persian, it achieved the status of a literary language in Muslim courts and was also used for literary purposes in various other settings such as [[Sufi]], [[sant (religion)|Nirgun Sant]], [[bhakti|Krishna Bhakta]] circles, and [[Rajput]] Hindu courts. Its majors centres of development included the Mughal courts of Delhi, [[Lucknow]], [[Agra]] and [[Lahore]] as well as the Rajput courts of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] and [[Jaipur]].<ref name="Wayback Machine" />

In the 18th century, towards the end of the Mughal period, with the fragmentation of the empire and the elite system, a variant of Hindustani, one of the successors of [[apabhraṃśa]] vernaculars at Delhi, and nearby cities, came to gradually replace Persian as the [[lingua franca]] among the educated elite [[upper class]] particularly in northern India, though Persian still retained much of its pre-eminence for a short period. The term ''Hindustani'' was given to that language.<ref>
Nijhawan, S. 2016. "Hindi, Urdu or Hindustani? Revisiting 'National Language' Debates through Radio Broadcasting in Late Colonial India." ''[[South Asia Research]]'' 36(1):80–97. {{doi|10.1177/0262728015615486}}.</ref> The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardisation process and further Persianisation during this period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from Persian: ''Zabān-e Urdū-e Mualla'' ('language of the court') or ''Zabān-e Urdū'' ({{lang|fa|زبان اردو}}, 'language of the camp'). The etymology of the word ''Urdu'' is of [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]] origin, ''Ordū'' ('camp'), cognate with English ''[[wikt:horde|horde]]'', and known in local translation as ''Lashkari Zabān'' ({{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|لشکری زبان}}|rtl=yes}}),<ref>Khalid, Kanwal. "Lahore During the Ghanavid Period".</ref> which is shortened to ''Lashkari'' ({{Lang|ur|{{nq|لشکری}}|rtl=yes}}).<ref name="Ahmad2009">{{cite book|author=Aijazuddin Ahmad|title=Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA120|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1|pages=120–}}</ref> This is all due to its origin as the common speech of the Mughal army. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became an official language of northern parts of [[British India]] in 1837.<ref name="Coatsworth2015">{{Cite book|url=http://www.overstock.com/Books-Movies-Music-Games/Global-Connections-Politics-Exchange-and-Social-Life-in-World-History-Hardcover/9911619/product.html#more|title=Global Connections: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History|last=Coatsworth|first=John|publisher=Cambridge Univ Pr|year=2015|isbn=9780521761062|location=United States|pages=159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Tariq Rahman|author-link=Tariq Rahman|date=2011|title=Urdu as the Language of Education in British India|url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/1.%20URDU%20AS%20THE%20LANGUAGE,%20Tariq%20Rahman%20FINAL.pdf|journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture|publisher=NIHCR|volume=32|issue=2|pages=1–42}}</ref>

Hindi as a standardised literary [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of the Hindustani arose in the 19th century. While the first literary works (mostly translations of earlier works) in Sanskritised Hindustani were already written in the early 19th century as part of a literary project that included both Hindu and Muslim writers (e.g. [[Lallu Lal]], [[Insha Allah Khan]]), the call for a distinct Sanskritised standard of Hindustani written in Devanagari under the name of Hindi became increasingly politicised in the course of the century and gained pace around 1880 in an effort to displace Urdu's official position.<ref>{{cite book| last=King |first=Christopher R. |year=1994 |title=One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

[[John Fletcher Hurst]] in his book published in 1891 mentioned that the Hindustani or camp language of the [[Mughal Empire]]'s courts at Delhi was not regarded by philologists as a distinct language but only as a dialect of [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Hindi]] with admixture of Persian. He continued: "But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language. It is linguistic result of Muslim rule of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken by many [[Hindu]]s in [[North India]] and by [[Muslim|Musalman]] population in all parts of India." Next to English it was the official language of [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]], was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters, and was spoken by approximately 100,000,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|author-link=John Fletcher Hurst|title=Indika, The country and People of India and Ceylon|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=j_1ykl3ZHXcC&pg=PA344|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=344|id=GGKEY:P8ZHWWKEKAJ}}</ref> The process of hybridization also led to the formation of words in which the first element of the compound was from Khari Boli and the second from [[Persian language|Persian]], such as ''rajmahal'' 'palace' (''raja'' 'royal, king' + ''mahal'' 'house, place') and ''rangmahal'' 'fashion house' (''rang'' 'colour, dye' + ''mahal'' 'house, place').<ref name="Britannica2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-01 |title=Hindustani language: Origins & Vocabulary |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220401050423/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language |url-status=dead |archive-date=2022-04-01 |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=archive.ph}}</ref> As [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim rule]] expanded, Hindustani speakers traveled to distant parts of India as administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. As it reached new areas, Hindustani further hybridized with local languages. In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], for instance, [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]] blended with [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and came to be called [[Deccani language|Dakhani]]. In Dakhani, aspirated consonants were replaced with their unaspirated counterparts; for instance, ''dekh'' 'see' became ''dek'', ''ghula'' 'dissolved' became ''gula'', ''kuch'' 'some' became ''kuc'', and ''samajh'' 'understand' became ''samaj''.<ref name="Britannica2022"/>

When the British colonised the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words 'Hindustani', 'Hindi', and 'Urdu' interchangeably. They developed it as the language of administration of [[British India]],<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|author-link=Florian Coulmas|title=Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kmKLxzTnL9IC&pg=PA232|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78737-6|page=232}}</ref> further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word 'Hindustani' declined, being largely replaced by 'Hindi' and 'Urdu', or 'Hindi–Urdu' when either of those was too specific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |pages=430 |quote=after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it [Hindustani] fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86-98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it as their mother language}}</ref> More recently, the word 'Hindustani' has been used for the colloquial language of [[Bollywood]] films, which are popular in both India and Pakistan and which cannot be unambiguously identified as either Hindi or Urdu.

British rule over India also introduced some English words into Hindustani, with these [[Englishization|influences]] increasing with the later spread of English as a world language. This has created a new variant of Hindustani known as [[Hinglish]] or [[Urdish]].<ref name="Coleman2014">{{cite book |last1=Coleman |first1=Julie |title=Global English Slang: Methodologies and Perspectives |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-93476-9 |page=130 |language=en |quote=Within India, however, other regional forms exist, all denoting a mixing of English with indigenous languages. ''Bonglish'' (derived from the slang term ''Bong'' 'a Bengali') or ''Benglish'' refers to 'a mixture of Bengali and English', ''Gunglish'' or ''Gujlish'' 'Gujarati + English', ''Kanglish'' 'Kannada + English', ''Manglish'' 'Malayalam + English', ''Marlish'' 'Marathi + English', ''Tamlish'' or ''Tanglish'' 'Tamil + English' and ''Urdish'' 'Urdu + English'. These terms are found in texts on regional variations of Indian English, usually in complaint-tradition discussions of failing standards of language purity.}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />