Editing Herat (section)

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Herat|Alexandria Ariana}}
{{Further|History of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei ante 1467 (7456297) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Reconstruction of [[Ptolemy]]'s map (2nd century AD) of [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] (Herat) and neighbouring states by the 15th century German [[cartographer]] [[Nicolaus Germanus]]]]
'''Ancient'''

Herat is first recorded in ancient times, but its precise date of foundation is unknown. Under the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] (550–330 BC), the surrounding district was known by the [[Old Persian]] name of ''Haraiva'' (𐏃𐎼𐎡𐎺), and in classical sources, the region was correspondingly known as Areia ([[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]]). In the [[Zoroastrian]] collection of [[Avesta]], the district is referred as ''Haroiva''. The name of the district and its principal town is a derivative from that of the local river, the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Herey River]] (from [[Old Iranian]] ''Harayu'', meaning "with velocity"), which goes through the district and ends {{convert|5|km|abbr=on}} south of Herat.{{sfn|Vogelsang|2003|pp=205–206}} Herey is mentioned in Sanskrit as a yellow or golden color equivalent to Persian "Zard" meaning Gold (yellow). The naming of a region and its principal town after the main river is a common feature in this part of the world&mdash; compare the adjoining districts/rivers/towns of [[Arachosia]] and [[Bactria]].
{{History of Afghanistan}}
The district ''Aria'' of the Achaemenid Empire is mentioned in the provincial lists that are included in various royal inscriptions, for instance, in the [[Behistun inscription]] of [[Darius I]] (ca. 520 BC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html|title=The Behistan Inscription of King Darius|author=Translated by Herbert Cushing Tolman|publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]], Nashville, Tennessee|access-date=2006-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413214509/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html|archive-date=2009-04-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> Representatives from the district are depicted in reliefs, e.g., at the royal Achaemenid tombs of [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] and [[Persepolis]]. They are wearing [[Scythians|Scythian]]-style dress (with a [[tunic]] and [[trousers]] tucked into high [[boot]]s) and a twisted [[Bashlyk]] that covers their head, chin and neck.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herat-ii|title=HERAT ii. HISTORY, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD – Encyclopædia Iranica|last=electricpulp.com|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2011-09-15|archive-date=2016-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901210956/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herat-ii|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Hamdallah Mustawfi]], composer of the 14th-century geographical work ''[[Nuzhat al-Qulub]]'' writes that:{{Blockquote|Herāt was the name of one of the chiefs among the followers of the hero [[Nariman (Shahnameh)|Narīmān]], and it was he who first founded the city. After it had fallen to ruin [[Alexander the Great]] rebuilt it, and the circuit of its walls was 9000 paces.<ref name="Mustawfi"/>}}

[[Herodotus]] described Herat as ''the breadbasket of Central Asia''. At the time of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, Aria was obviously an important district. It was administered by a [[satrap]] called [[Satibarzanes]], who was one of the three main Persian officials in the East of the Empire, together with the satrap [[Bessus]] of [[Bactria]] and [[Barsaentes]] of Arachosia. In late 330 BC, Alexander captured the Arian capital that was called [[Artacoana]]. The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed. Afghanistan became part of the [[Seleucid Empire]].

[[File:Coin of Bahram II, Herat mint (2).jpg|thumb|left|Coin of [[Bahram II]]; Herat mint]]
However, most sources suggest that Herat was predominantly [[Zoroastrian]]. It became part of the [[Parthian Empire]] in 167 BC. In the [[Sasanian]] period (226–652), 𐭧𐭥𐭩𐭥 ''Harēv'' is listed in an inscription on the [[Ka'ba-i Zartosht]] at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]]; and ''Hariy'' is mentioned in the [[Middle Persian|Pahlavi]] catalogue of the provincial capitals of the empire. Around 430, the town is also listed as having a Christian community, with a bishop from the [[Church of the East]].<ref>The earliest recorded date of a bishop in Herat is 424. {{cite web|url=http://www.nestorian.org/location_of_nestorian_bishops.html |title=ASP Test Page |access-date=2011-04-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515040342/http://www.nestorian.org/location_of_nestorian_bishops.html |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}</ref>

In the last two centuries of Sasanian rule, Aria (Herat) was of great strategic importance in the endless wars between the Sasanians, the [[Chionites]], and the [[Hephthalites]], who had been settled in the northern section of Afghanistan since the late 4th century.

===Conversion to Islam===
{{Further|Islamic conquest of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Herat Congregational Mosque -Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the famous [[Friday Mosque of Herat]] or ''Masjid Jami'', which is one of the oldest mosques in [[Afghanistan]].]]
At the time of the [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|Arab invasion]] in the middle of the 7th century, the [[Sasanian]] central power seemed already largely nominal in the province in contrast with the role of the [[Hephthalites]] tribal lords, who were settled in the Herat region and in the neighboring districts, mainly in pastoral [[Badghis Province|Bādghis]] and in [[Quhistan|Qohestān]]. It must be underlined, however, that Herat remained one of the three Sasanian mint centers in the east, the other two beings [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] and [[Merv|Marv]]. The Hephthalites from Herat and some unidentified [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] opposed the Arab forces in a battle of Qohestān in 651-52 AD, trying to block their advance on [[Nishapur|Nishāpur]], but they were defeated.

When the Arab armies appeared in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorāsān]] in the 650s, Herāt was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian Empire. The Arab army under the general command of [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]] in its conquest of Khorāsān in 652 seems to have avoided Herāt. The city eventually submitted to the Arabs, since shortly afterward, an Arab governor is mentioned there. A treaty was drawn in which the regions of Bādghis and Bushanj were included. Like many other places in Khorāsān, Herāt rebelled and had to be re-conquered several times.<ref>[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Abu Ja’far Muḥammad ibn Jarir Ṭabari]], Taʾrikh al-rosul wa’l-moluk, pp. 2904-6</ref>

Another power that was active in the area in the 650s was [[Tang dynasty]] China which had embarked on a campaign that culminated in the [[Conquest of the Western Turks]]. By 659–661, the Tang claimed a tenuous suzerainty over Herat, the westernmost point of Chinese power in its long history. This hold however would be ephemeral with local Turkish tribes rising in rebellion in 665 and driving out the Tang.<ref name="tang">{{cite book|title=Warfare in Chinese History|date=2000|publisher=Brill|page=118}}</ref>

In 702, [[Yazid ibn al-Muhallab]] defeated certain Arab rebels, followers of [[Ibn al-Ash'ath]], and forced them out of Herat. The city was the scene of conflicts between different groups of Muslims and Arab tribes in the disorders leading to the establishment of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. Herat was also a center of the followers of [[Ustadh Sis]].

In 870, [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]], the founder of the [[Saffarids|Saffarid dynasty]], conquered Herat and the rest of the nearby regions in the name of Islam.{{Blockquote|...Arab armies carrying the banner of Islam came out of the west to defeat the [[Sasanians]] in 642 AD and then they marched with confidence to the east. On the western periphery of the Afghan area, the princes of Herat and [[Seistan]] gave way to rule by Arab governors but in the east, in the mountains, cities submitted only to rise in revolt, and the hastily converted returned to their old beliefs once the armies passed. The harshness and avariciousness of Arab rule produced such unrest, however, that once the waning power of the [[Caliphate]] became apparent, native rulers once again established themselves independent. Among these, the Saffarids of Seistan shone briefly in the Afghan area. The fanatic founder of this dynasty, the coppersmith's apprentice Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, came forth from his capital at [[Zaranj]] in 870 AD and marched through [[Lashkar Gah|Bost]], [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]], [[Kabulistan|Kabul]], [[Bamiyan]], [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] and Herat, conquering in the name of Islam.<ref name=Dupree3>{{Cite book|title=An Historical Guide to Afghanistan|last1=Dupree|first1=Nancy Hatch|volume=First Edition|year=1970|publisher=Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization|location=Kabul|page=492|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ|access-date=2012-06-17|archive-date=2021-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501125959/https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ&q=inauthor%3A%22Nancy+Hatch+Dupree%22|url-status=live}}</ref>|[[Nancy Dupree|N. Dupree]]}}

===Pearl of Khorasan===
{{Further|Tahirid dynasty|Saffarid dynasty|Ghaznavids|Ghurid dynasty|Timurid dynasty|Safavid dynasty}}
The region of Herāt was under the rule of King [[Nuh II]], the seventh of the [[Samanids|Samanid]] line&mdash;at the time of [[Sebük Tigin]] and his older son, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]].<ref name=Skrine>{{cite book
 |last1= Skrine
 |first1= Francis Henry
 |author-link1=Francis Henry Skrine
 |last2= Ross
 |first2= Edward Denison
 |author-link2=Edward Denison Ross
 |page= 117
 |year= 2004
 |isbn= 0-7007-1017-5
 |title= The heart of Asia: a history of Russian Turkestan and the Central Asian Khanates from the earliest times
 |publisher= [[Routledge]]}}</ref> The governor of Herāt was a noble by the name of ''Faik'', who was appointed by Nuh III. It is said that Faik was a powerful but insubordinate governor of Nuh III and had been punished by Nuh III. Faik made overtures to [[Bogra Khan]] and Ughar Khan of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Bogra Khan answered Faik's call, came to Herāt, and became its ruler. The Samanids fled, betrayed at the hands of Faik to whom the defense of Herāt had been entrusted by Nuh III.<ref name="Skrine" /> In 994, Nuh III invited Alptegin to come to his aid. Alptegin, along with Mahmud of Ghazni, defeated Faik and annexed Herāt, [[Nishapur]] and [[Tous, Iran|Tous]].<ref name=Skrine/>
[[File:Seljuq Ewer.jpg|thumb|100px|High-spouted brass ewer, from Herat, [[Ghurid Empire|Ghurid]] period (AD 1180–1200).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr Barry |title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter |date=12 July 2022 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3324-5 |page=105 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vUZpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Herat Ewer.jpg|thumbnail|right|100 px|Another identical ewer in the [[British Museum]]]]
[[File:Behzad timur egyptian.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Battleground of Timur and Egyptian King, by [[Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād|Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād Herawī]], a famous painter from Herat, c. 1494–1495, [[Timurids|Timurid era]]]]
[[File:Persian calligraphy - Mir Ali Tabrizi.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Page of [[calligraphy]] in [[nasta'liq]] script by the 16th century master calligrapher [[Mir Ali Heravi]]<ref>[http://www.louvre.fr/llv/activite/detail_parcours.jsp?CURRENT_LLV_PARCOURS%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673464057&CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673465686&CURRENT_LLV_CHEMINEMENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673465686&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500830&bmLocale=en Musée du Louvre, Calligraphy in Islamic Art] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110041444/http://www.louvre.fr/llv/activite/detail_parcours.jsp?CURRENT_LLV_PARCOURS%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673464057&CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673465686&CURRENT_LLV_CHEMINEMENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673465686&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500830&bmLocale=en |date=2011-11-10 }}</ref>]]
[[File:TimuridTankard.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Brass]] cup or [[tankard]], [[Timurids|Timurid period]], 15th century A.D., from Herāt.]]

Herat was a great trading center strategically located on trade routes from the Mediterranean to India or China. The city was noted for its textiles during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], according to many references by geographers. Herāt also had many learned sons such as [[Khwajah Abdullah Ansari|Ansārī]]. The city is described by [[Estakhri]] and [[Ibn Hawqal]] in the 10th century as a prosperous town surrounded by strong walls with plenty of water sources, extensive suburbs, an inner citadel, a congregational mosque, and four gates, each gate opening to a thriving market place. The government building was outside the city at a distance of about a mile in a place called Khorāsānābād. A church was still visible in the countryside northeast of the town on the road to [[Balkh]], and farther away on a hilltop stood a flourishing [[fire temple]], called Sereshk, or Arshak according to [[Hamdallah Mustawfi|Mustawfi]].<ref name="Mustawfi"/><ref>''[[The Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', Brill Publishers, Vol.3: H-Iram, 1986, Leiden, pp. 177</ref><ref>Eṣṭaḵri, pp. 263-65, tr. pp. 277-82</ref><ref>Ibn Ḥawqal, pp. 437-39, tr. pp. 424;</ref><ref>Moqaddasi (Maqdesi), Aḥsan al-taqāsim fi maʿrifat al-aqālim, ed. M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1906, p. 307;</ref>

Herat was a part of the [[Tahirid dynasty|Taherid]] dominion in Khorāsān until the rise of the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]] in [[Sistan|Sistān]] under [[Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari|Ya'qub-i Laith]] in 861, who, in 862, started launching raids on Herat before besieging and capturing it on 16 August 867, and again in 872. The Saffarids succeeded in expelling the Taherids from Khorasan in 873.

The [[Samanids|Sāmānid dynasty]] was established in [[Transoxiana]] by three brothers, [[Nuh I|Nuh]], [[Yahya ibn Asad|Yahyā]], and [[Ahmad Samani|Ahmad]]. Ahmad Sāmāni opened the way for the Samanid dynasty to the conquest of Khorāsān, including Herāt, which they were to rule for one century. The centralized Samanid administration served as a model for later dynasties. The Samanid power was destroyed in 999 by the [[Qarakhanids]], who were advancing on [[Transoxiana]] from the northeast, and by the [[Ghaznavids]], former Samanid retainers, attacking from the southeast.

'''Ghaznavid Era'''

[[Mahmud of Ghazni|Sultan Maḥmud of Ghazni]] officially took control of Khorāsān in 998. Herat was one of the six Ghaznavid mints in the region. In 1040, Herat was captured by the [[Seljuk Empire]]. During this change of power in Herat, there was supposedly a power vacuum which was filled by [[Qutb Shah|Abdullah Awn]], who established a city-state and made an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bahri|first=Hardev|title=Lahndi Phonetics, with Special Reference to Awáṇkárí|publisher=Bharati Press Prakashan|year=1963|pages=10 and 11}}</ref> Yet, in 1175, it was captured by the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] of [[Ghor]] and then came under the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khawarazm Empire]] in 1214. According to the account of Mustawfi, Herat flourished especially under the [[Ghurid dynasty]] in the 12th century. Mustawfi reported that there were "359 colleges in Herat, 12,000 shops all fully occupied, 6,000 bath-houses; besides caravanserais and mills, also a [[darwish]] [[convent]] and a fire temple". There were about 444,000 houses occupied by a settled population. The men were described as "warlike and carry arms", and they were [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="Mustawfi">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |title=The Geographical Part of the NUZHAT-AL-QULŪB |author=Ḥamd-Allāh Mustawfī of Qazwīn |work=Translated by Guy Le Strange |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |year=1340 |access-date=2011-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726144951/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |archive-date=2013-07-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Friday Mosque of Herat|great mosque of Herāt]] was built by [[Ghiyasuddin Ghori]] in 1201. In this period Herāt became an important center for producing metal goods, especially in [[bronze]], often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals.

'''Mongols'''

The [[Mongol Empire]] laid siege to Herat twice. The first siege resulted in the surrender of the city, the slaughter of the local sultan's army of 12,000, and the appointment of two governors, one Mongol and one Muslim. The second, prompted by a rebellion against Mongol rule, lasted seven months and ended in June 1222 with, according to one account, the beheading of the entire population of 1,600,000 people by the victorious Mongols, such that "no head was left on a body, nor body with a head."<ref>[https://archive.org/details/Boyle1968IlKhansCHIran05/page/n12/mode/1up?view=theater ''Cambridge History of Iran'', Vol.V, Ch.4, "Dynastic and Political History of the Il-Khans" (John Andrew Boyle), pp.315-6 (1968).]</ref>

The city remained in ruins from 1222 to about 1236. In 1244, a local prince [[Shams-uddin Muhammad Kurt I|Shams al-Din Kart]] was named ruler of Herāt by the Mongol governor of Khorāsān and in 1255 he was confirmed in his rule by the founder of the [[Ilkhanate|Il-Khan dynasty]] [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]]. Shamsuddin Kart founded a new dynasty and his successors, especially Fakhruddin Kart and Ghiyasuddin Kart, built many mosques and other buildings. The members of this dynasty were great patrons of literature and the arts. By this time Herāt became known as the ''pearl of Khorasan''.{{blockquote|If anyone asks thee which is the pleasantest of cities, Thou mayest answer him aright that it is Herāt. For the world is like the sea, and the province of Khurāsān like a pearl-oyster therein, The city of Herāt being as the pearl in the middle of the oyster.<ref name="Mustawfi"/>|[[Rumi]]|1207–1273 A.D.}}

[[Timur]] took Herat in 1380 and he brought the [[Kartids|Kartid dynasty]] to an end a few years later. The city reached its greatest glory under the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid princes]], especially [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bayqara]] who ruled Herat from 1469 until 4 May 1506. His chief minister, the poet and author in Persian and Turkish, [[Ali-Shir Nava'i|Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i]] was a great builder and patron of the arts. Under the Timurids, Herat assumed the role of the main capital of an empire that extended in the West as far as central [[Iran|Persia]]. As the capital of the Timurid empire, it boasted many fine religious buildings and was famous for its sumptuous court life and musical performance and its tradition of miniature paintings. On the whole, the period was one of relative stability, prosperity, and development of economy and cultural activities. It began with the nomination of [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shahrokh]], the youngest son of Timur, as governor of Herat in 1397. The reign of Shahrokh in Herat was marked by intense royal patronage, building activities, and the promotion of manufacturing and trade, especially through the restoration and enlargement of the Herat's bāzār. The present Musallah Complex, and many buildings such as the madrasa of [[Gawhar Shad]], Ali Shir mahāl, many gardens, and others, date from this time. The village of [[Gazar Gah]], over two km northeast of Herat, contained a shrine that was enlarged and embellished under the Timurids. The tomb of the poet and mystic [[Khwajah Abdullah Ansari|Khwājah Abdullāh Ansārī]] (d. 1088), was first rebuilt by Shahrokh about 1425, and other famous men were buried in the shrine area.

In the summer of 1458, the [[Qara Qoyunlu]] under [[Jahan Shah]] advanced as far as Herat, but had to turn back soon because of a revolt by his son [[Hasan Ali (Qara Qoyunlu)|Hasan Ali]] and also because [[Abu Sa'id Mirza|Abu Said]]'s march on Tabriz.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Central Asia|volume=4|author=Christoph Baum|page=297|year=2018}}</ref>

In 1507, Herat was occupied by the [[Shaybanid Dynasty|Uzbeks]] but after much fighting the city was taken by [[Ismail I|Shah Isma'il]], the founder of the [[Safavid dynasty]], in 1510 and the Shamlu [[Qizilbash]] assumed the governorship of the area. Under the Safavids, Herat was again relegated to the position of a provincial capital, albeit one of particular importance. At the death of Shah Isma'il the Uzbeks again took Herat and held it until [[Tahmasp I|Shah Tahmasp]] retook it in 1528. The Persian king, [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas the Great]] was born in Herat, and in Safavid texts, Herat is referred to as ''a'zam-i bilād-i īrān'', meaning "the greatest of the cities of Iran".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Savory|first1=Roger|title=The Safavid state and polity|journal=Iranian Studies|date=2 January 2007|volume=7|issue=1–2|page=206|doi=10.1080/00210867408701463|quote=Herat is referred to as a'zam-i bilād-i īrān (the greatest of the cities of Iran) and Isfahan as khulāsa-yi mulk-i īrān (the choicest part of the realm of Iran).}}</ref> In the 16th century, all future Safavid Persian rulers, from Tahmasp I to Abbas I, were governors of Herat in their youth.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Szuppe|first1=Maria|title=HERAT iii. HISTORY, MEDIEVAL PERIOD|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herat-iii|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica|access-date=13 March 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314062827/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herat-iii|archive-date=14 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Modern history (1500-2023)===
{{Further|Sadozai Sultanate of Herat|Durrani Empire}}

By the early 18th century Herat was governed by the [[Sadozai Sultanate of Herat|Abdali Afghans]]. After [[Nader Shah]]'s death in 1747, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] took possession of the city and became part of the [[Durrani Empire]].<ref name=Singh/>
[[File:Herati Soldiers 1879.jpg|thumb|Herati Soldiers 1879]]
[[File:Qiran Coin of Naser al-Din Qajar minted in Herat.jpg|thumb|248x248px|1 Qiran Coin of [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Qajar]]; Herat mint, 1861]]
In 1793, [[Herat (1793-1863)|Herat became independent]] for several years when [[Durrani Empire|Afghanistan]] underwent a civil war between different sons of [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]]. The [[Qajar Iran|Iranians]] had multiple wars with Herat between 1801 and 1837 (1804, 1807, 1811, 1814, 1817, 1818, 1821, 1822, 1825, 1833).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kdl9oAEACAAJ|title=The Pearl in Its Midst: Herat and the Mapping of Khurasan (15th-19th Centuries)|date=2014|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|isbn=978-3-7001-7202-4|language=en}}</ref> The Iranians [[Siege of Herat (1838)|besieged the city in 1837]], but the British helped the Heratis in repelling them. In 1856, they invaded again, and briefly managed to take the city on 25 October;<ref name=":0" /> it led directly to the [[Anglo-Persian War]]. In 1857 hostilities between the Iranians and the British ended after the [[Treaty of Paris (1857)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed, and the Persian troops withdrew from Herat in September 1857.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Avery|editor1-first=Peter|editor2-last=Hambly|editor2-first=Gavin|editor3-last=Melville|editor3-first=Charles|title=The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol. 7): From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521200950|pages=183, 394–395}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Afghanistan conquered Herat on 26 May 1863, under [[Dost Muhammad Khan]], two weeks before his death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ewans|title=Afghanistan: A short History of its People and Politics|date=2002|publisher=Perennial|isbn=006-050508-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistanshort00ewan/page/77 77]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistanshort00ewan/page/77}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Herat Remains of Musallah complex.jpg|Traffic passing on the road near the Herat minarets, 2005.
File:Gawhar shad-1417-2.jpg| The two mausoleums with the minarets, July 2001. 
</gallery>

The famous [[Musalla Complex|Musalla of Gawhar Shah]] of Herat, a large Islamic religious complex consisting of five minarets, several mausoleums along with [[mosque]]s and [[madrasa]]s was dynamited during the [[Panjdeh incident]] to prevent their usage by the advancing [[Russian Armed Forces|Russian forces]]. Some emergency preservation work was carried out at the site in 2001 which included building protective walls around the [[Gawhar Shad Mausoleum]] and Sultan Husain Madrasa, repairing the remaining minaret of Gawhar Shad's Madrasa, and replanting the mausoleum garden.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.touristspots.org/mousallah-complex-in-herat-afghanistan/|title=Mousallah Complex in Herat – Afghanistan – Tourist Spots Around the World|website=Touristspots.org|access-date=21 January 2019|archive-date=21 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232855/https://www.touristspots.org/mousallah-complex-in-herat-afghanistan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1059997.html|title=Afghanistan: Race To Preserve Historic Minarets Of Herat, Jam|newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty|access-date=21 January 2019|archive-date=30 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730021724/https://www.rferl.org/a/1059997.html|url-status=live |last1=Podelco |first1=Grant }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adventuretravelphotos.com/|title=Tư vấn sản phẩm|website=Adventuretravelphotos.com|access-date=21 January 2019|archive-date=25 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125042848/http://www.adventuretravelphotos.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the aftermath of the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)]], Herat was the last stronghold of [[Saqqawist]] resistance, holding out until 1931 when it was retaken by forces loyal to [[Mohammad Nadir Shah]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mohammad-nader-shah-king-of-afghanistan|title=MOḤAMMAD NĀDER SHAH – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2019-04-23|quote=The following year, his enthronement was legitimated by a Lōya jerga (9-20 September 1930), whilst the final strongholds of Saqawi resistance were repressed in Kohdāman in 1930 (Eṣlāḥ I/67-70, 1930), and in Herat in 1931.}}</ref>

[[File:1973-12-05 Herat (9).jpg|thumb|left|Bazaar of Herat, 1973]]
[[File:Afghan rugs getting treated for age (1977) - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|[[Afghan rug]]s in Herat, 1977]]
In the 1960s, engineers from the United States built [[Herat International Airport|Herat Airport]], which was used by the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces during the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] in the 1980s. Even before the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet invasion]] at the end of 1979, there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in the city with their families.

Between 10–20 March 1979, the [[Afghan National Army|Afghan Army]] in Herat under the control of commander [[Ismail Khan]] mutinied. Thousands of protesters took to the streets against the [[Khalq]] communist regime's oppression led by [[Nur Mohammad Taraki]]. The new rebels led by Khan managed to oust the communists and take control of the city for 3 days, with some protesters murdering any Soviet advisers and targeting women without [[Hijab|headscarves]], dubbed ''sārluchi''. This shocked the government, who blamed the new administration of [[Iran]] following the [[Iranian Revolution]] for influencing the uprising.<ref>''Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to the Present'' by Gilles Dorronsoro, 2005</ref> Reprisals by the government followed, and between 3,000 and 24,000 people (according to different sources) were killed, in what is called the [[1979 Herat uprising]], or in Persian as the ''Qiam-e Herat''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buHXFDFdeoQC&q=herat+soviet+revolt+1979+thousand&pg=PA68|title=Resisting Rebellion: The History and Politics of Counterinsurgency|first=Anthony James|last=Joes|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|via=Google Books|isbn=9780813191706|access-date=5 October 2020|archive-date=28 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528204449/https://books.google.com/books?id=buHXFDFdeoQC&q=herat+soviet+revolt+1979+thousand&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref> The city itself was recaptured with by the [[Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghan Army]]’s 4th and 15th Armoured Brigades, detachments of the [[Afghan Commando Forces]] and the [[Afghan Air Force (1978–1992)|Afghan Air Force]] but at the cost of thousands of civilians killed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Urban |first=Mark |date=1990 |title=War in Afghanistan |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-349-20761-9 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-20761-9|isbn=978-0-333-51478-8 }}</ref> This rebellion was the first of its kind since the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919, and was the bloodiest event preceding the [[Soviet–Afghan War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/failings-of-inclusivity-the-herat-uprising-of-march-1979/|title=Failings of Inclusivity: The Herat uprising of March 1979 - Afghanistan Analysts Network|website=www.afghanistan-analysts.org|access-date=2015-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802080317/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/failings-of-inclusivity-the-herat-uprising-of-march-1979/|archive-date=2015-08-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Herat in June 2011-cropped.jpg|thumb|right|View of Herat, 2011]]
[[File:NATO and Afghan officials at Herat International Airport in 2012.jpg|thumb|right|Afghan and U.S. government officials along with members of the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) at [[Herat International Airport]] in 2012.]]
Herat received damage during the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], especially its western side. The province as a whole was one of the worst-hit. In April 1983, a series of Soviet bombings damaged half of the city and killed around 3,000 civilians, described as "extremely heavy, brutal and prolonged".<ref>''Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation'', by J. Bruce Amstutz – Page 133 & 145</ref> Ismail Khan was the leading [[mujahideen]] commander in Herat fighting against the Soviet-backed government.

After the communist government's collapse in 1992, Khan joined the [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|new government]] and he became governor of [[Herat Province]]. The city was relatively safe and it was recovering and rebuilding from the damage caused in the Soviet–Afghan War.<ref>''War, Exile and the Music of Afghanistan: The Ethnographer's Tale'' by John Baily</ref> However, on 5 September 1995, the city was captured by the [[Taliban]] without much resistance, forcing Khan to flee. Herat became the first Persian-speaking city to be captured by the Taliban. The Taliban's strict enforcement of laws confining women at home and closing girls' schools alienated Heratis who are traditionally more liberal and educated, like the Kabulis, than other urban populations in the country. Two days of anti-Taliban protests occurred in December 1996 which was violently dispersed and led to the imposition of a curfew.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-date=2017-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061437/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 1999, a rebellion in Herat was crushed by the Taliban, who blamed Iran for causing it.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awljDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT81|title=Iran in Crisis?: Nuclear Ambitions and the American Response|isbn=9781848137110|last1=Howard|first1=Roger|date=4 July 2013|publisher=Zed Books |access-date=7 June 2020|archive-date=28 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528204449/https://books.google.com/books?id=awljDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT81|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]], on 12 November 2001, it was captured from the Taliban by forces loyal to the [[Northern Alliance]] and Ismail Khan returned to power (see [[Battle of Herat]]). The state of the city was reportedly much better than that of Kabul.<ref name="rferl.org"/> In 2004, [[Mirwais Sadiq]], Aviation Minister of Afghanistan and the son of Ismail Khan, was ambushed and killed in Herāt by a local rival group. More than 200 people were arrested under suspicion of involvement.<ref>{{cite news|title=More arrests after Herat killing|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3567277.stm|work=BBC News|date=2004-03-25|location=London|access-date=2006-02-18|archive-date=2006-02-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218165552/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3567277.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2005, the [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) began establishing bases in and around the city. Its main mission was to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]] (ANSF) and help with the rebuilding process of the country. [[Train Advise Assist Command – West|Regional Command West]], led by Italy, assisted the [[Afghan National Army]] (ANA) [[207th Corps (Afghanistan)|207th Corps]]. Herat was one of the first seven areas that transitioned security responsibility from NATO to Afghanistan. In July 2011, the Afghan security forces assumed security responsibility from NATO.

Due to their close relations, Iran began investing in the development of Herat's power, economy and education sectors.<ref>Motlagh, Jason.[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1900013,00.html?xid=rss-topstories-cnnpartner Iran's Spending Spree in Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527075726/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1900013,00.html?xid=rss-topstories-cnnpartner |date=2009-05-27 }}. ''[[TIME (magazine)|Time]]''. Wednesday 20 May 2009. Retrieved on 24 May 2009.</ref> In the meantime, the United States built a [[consul (representative)|consulate]] in Herat to help further strengthen its [[Afghanistan – United States relations|relations with Afghanistan]]. In addition to the usual services, the consulate works with the local officials on development projects and with security issues in the region.<ref>[http://kabul.usembassy.gov/amb_speech121609.html "U.S. Ambassador Karl W. Eikenberry Remarks at the Lease-Signing Ceremony for U.S. Consulate Herat"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204654/http://kabul.usembassy.gov/amb_speech121609.html |date=2016-03-03 }}</ref>

On 12 August 2021, the city was [[Fall of Herat|captured]] by the [[Taliban]] during the [[2021 Taliban offensive]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varshalomidze |first1=Tamila |title=Taliban captures Herat city after taking Ghazni |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/12/afghanistan-taliban-kandahar-prison-police-ghazni-live-updates |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=12 August 2021 |ref=Herat, Afghanistan’s third-largest city, has fallen to the Taliban, residents and local journalists said, becoming the eleventh provincial capital to be captured by the armed group in recent days.}}</ref>