Editing Hedonism (section)

== Types ==
The term ''hedonism'' refers not to a single theory but to a family of theories about the role of [[pleasure]]. These theories are often categorized into [[Psychology|psychological]], [[Value theory|axiological]], and [[Ethics|ethical]] hedonism depending on whether they study the relation between pleasure and [[motivation]], [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|value]], or right action.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bruton|2024}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> While these distinctions are common in contemporary philosophy, earlier philosophers did not always clearly differentiate between them and sometimes combined several views in their theories.<ref>{{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 2. Psychological, Evaluative and Reflective Hedonism}}</ref> The word ''hedonism'' derives from the [[Ancient Greek]] word {{lang|grc|ἡδονή}} ({{Transliteration|grc|[[hedone|hēdonē]]}}), meaning {{gloss|pleasure}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=213}} | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2021|loc=§ Epicure}} }}</ref> Its earliest known use in the English language is from the 1850s.<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford University Press|2024}}</ref>

=== Psychological hedonism ===
[[File:Thomas Hobbes (portrait).jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Thomas Hobbes|[[Thomas Hobbes]] was a key advocate of psychological hedonism.<ref name="auto3">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blakemore|Jennett|2001|loc=§ Pleasure and the Enlightenment}} | {{harvnb|Schmitter|2021|loc=§ 3. The Classification of the Passions}} | {{harvnb|Abizadeh|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZahxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 146]}} }}</ref>]]

Psychological or motivational hedonism is the view that all human actions aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding [[pain]]. It is an empirical view about what motivates people, both on the conscious and the unconscious levels.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1c. Motivational Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Buscicchi|loc=§ 2. Paradoxes of Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Bruton|2024}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ IV. Psychological Hedonism}} }}</ref> Psychological hedonism is usually understood as a form of [[egoism]], meaning that people strive to increase their own happiness. This implies that a person is only motivated to help others if it is in their [[self-interest|own interest]] because they expect a personal benefit from it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bruton|2024}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|2001|p=1326}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ IV. Psychological Hedonism}} }}</ref> As a theory of human motivation, psychological hedonism does not imply that all behavior leads to pleasure. For example, if a person holds mistaken beliefs or lacks necessary skills, they may attempt to produce pleasure but fail to attain the intended outcome.<ref>{{harvnb|Bruton|2024}}</ref>

The standard form of psychological hedonism asserts that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the only sources of all motivation. Some psychological hedonists propose weaker formulations, suggesting that considerations of pleasure and pain influence most actions to some extent or limiting their role to certain conditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1c. Motivational Hedonism}}</ref> For example, reflective or rationalizing hedonism says that human motivation is only driven by pleasure and pain when people actively reflect on the overall consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 2. Psychological, Evaluative and Reflective Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|2001|p=1326}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|2005|pp=363–364}} }}</ref> Another version is genetic hedonism, which accepts that people desire various things besides pleasure but asserts that each desire has its origin in a desire for pleasure.<ref>{{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ IV. Psychological Hedonism}}</ref> [[Darwinian hedonism]] explains the pleasure-seeking tendency from an evolutionary perspective, arguing that hedonic impulses evolved as adaptive strategies to promote survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Williams|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S1uHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–4]}} |{{harvnb|Freeland|2020|p=788}} }}</ref>

Proponents of psychological hedonism often highlight its intuitive appeal and explanatory power, arguing that many desires directly focus on pleasure while the others have an indirect focus by aiming at the means to bring about pleasure.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Heathwood|2013|loc=§ Why Think Hedonism Is True?}} | {{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=§ 1.1 Arguments For Psychological Hedonism}} }}</ref> Critics of psychological hedonism often cite apparent counterexamples in which people act for reasons other than their personal pleasure. Proposed examples include acts of genuine [[altruism]], such as a soldier sacrificing themselves on the battlefield to save their comrades or a parent wanting their children to be happy. Critics also mention non-altruistic cases, like a desire for [[posthumous fame]]. It is an open question to what extent these cases can be explained as types of pleasure-seeking behavior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gosling|2001|p=1326}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 2. Psychological, Evaluative and Reflective Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Bruton|2024}} | {{harvnb|Heathwood|2013|loc=§ Why Think Hedonism Is True?}} }}</ref>

=== Axiological hedonism ===
Axiological or evaluative hedonism is the view that pleasure is the sole source of [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsic value]]. An entity has intrinsic value or is good in itself if its worth does not depend on external factors. Intrinsic value contrasts with [[Instrumental and intrinsic value|instrumental value]], which is the value of things that lead to other good things. According to axiological hedonism, pleasure is intrinsically valuable because it is good even when it produces no external benefit. Money, by contrast, is only instrumentally good because it can be used to obtain other good things but lacks value apart from these uses. Axiological hedonism asserts that only pleasure has intrinsic value whereas other things only have instrumental value to the extent that they lead to pleasure or the avoidance of pain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1b. Value Hedonism and Prudential Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ III. Axiological Hedonism}} }}</ref> The overall value of a thing depends on both its intrinsic and instrumental value. In some cases, even unpleasant things, like a painful surgery, can be overall good, according to axiological hedonism, if their positive consequences make up for the unpleasantness.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ III. Axiological Hedonism}}</ref>

Prudential hedonism is a form of axiological hedonism that focuses specifically on [[well-being]] or what is good for an individual. It states that pleasure and pain are the sole factors of well-being, meaning that how good a life is for a person only depends on its balance of pleasure over pain. Prudential hedonism allows for the possibility that other things than well-being have intrinsic value, such as beauty or freedom.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1b. Value Hedonism and Prudential Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|de Bres|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t-CkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT428 Hedonism]}} }}</ref>

According to quantitative hedonism, the intrinsic value of pleasure depends solely on its intensity and duration. Qualitative hedonists hold that the quality of pleasure is an additional factor. They argue, for instance, that subtle pleasures of the mind, like the enjoyment of fine art and philosophy, can be more valuable than simple bodily pleasures, like enjoying food and drink, even if their intensity is lower.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ III. Axiological Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Heathwood|2013|loc=§ What Determines the Intrinsic Value of a Pleasure or a Pain?}} }}</ref>

[[File:Robert Nozick 1977 Libertarian Review cover.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of Robert Nozick|[[Robert Nozick]]'s [[experience machine]] is an influential [[thought experiment]] against hedonism.<ref name="auto4">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Heathwood|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 146–147]}} | {{harvnb|Tiberius|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 163–164]}} }}</ref>]]

Proponents of axiological hedonism often focus on intuitions about the relation between pleasure and value or on the observation that pleasure is desirable.<ref name="auto1"/> The idea that most pleasures are valuable in some form is relatively uncontroversial. However, the stronger claim that all pleasures are valuable and that they are the only source of intrinsic value is subject to debate.<ref>{{harvnb|Weijers|loc=Lead section}}</ref> Some critics assert that certain pleasures are worthless or even bad, like disgraceful and [[Everyday sadism|sadistic]] pleasures.<ref>{{harvnb|Feldman|2004|pp=38–39}}</ref>{{efn|A more controversial objection asserts that all pleasures are bad.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vogt|2018|p=[https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004379503/BP000015.xml 94]}} | {{harvnb|Aufderheide|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=F5jIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref>}} A different criticism comes from [[Value pluralism|value pluralists]], who contend that other things besides pleasure have value. To support the idea that [[beauty]] is an additional source of value, [[G. E. Moore]] used a [[thought experiment]] involving two worlds: one exceedingly beautiful and the other a heap of filth. He argued that the beautiful world is better even if there is no one to enjoy it.<ref>{{harvnb|Feldman|2004|pp=51–52}}</ref> Another influential thought experiment, proposed by [[Robert Nozick]], involves an [[experience machine]] able to create artificial pleasures. Based on his observation that most people would not want to spend the rest of their lives in this type of pleasant illusion, he argued that hedonism cannot account for the values of authenticity and genuine experience.<ref name="auto4"/>{{efn|Another historically influential argument, first formulated by Socrates, suggests that a pleasurable life void of any higher [[cognitive]] processes, like the life of a happy [[oyster]], is not the best form of life.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 2d. The Oyster Example}} | {{harvnb|Feldman|2004|pp=43–44}} }}</ref>}}

=== Ethical hedonism ===
[[File:Epicurus-Altes Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|left|alt=Bust of Epicurus|[[Epicurus]] developed a nuanced form of ethical hedonism, arguing that a [[Ataraxia|tranquil state of mind]] cultivated through moderation leads to the greatest overall happiness.<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Feldman|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KfeOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA665 665–666]}} | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 2c. Epicurus}} }}</ref>]]

Ethical or [[Normativity|normative]] hedonism is the thesis that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the highest [[Morality|moral]] principles of human behavior.{{efn|Some definitions do not distinguish between ethical and axiological hedonism, and define ethical hedonism in terms of intrinsic values rather than right action.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=Lead section, § 2. Ethical Hedonism}}</ref>}} It implies that other moral considerations, like [[duty]], [[justice]], or [[virtue]], are relevant only to the extent that they influence pleasure and pain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ II. Ethical Hedonism}} }}</ref>

Theories of ethical hedonism can be divided into egoistic and [[utilitarian]] theories. Egoistic hedonism says that each person should only pursue their own pleasure. According to this controversial view, a person only has a moral reason to care about the happiness of others if this happiness impacts their own well-being. For example, if a person feels guilty about harming others, they have a reason not to do so. However, a person would be free to harm others, and would even be morally required to, if they benefit from it overall.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1d. Normative Hedonism, § 1e. Hedonistic Egoism}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ II. Ethical Hedonism}} }}</ref>

Utilitarian hedonism, also called ''classical utilitarianism'', asserts that everyone's happiness matters. It says that a person should maximize the sum total of happiness of everybody affected by their actions. This sum total includes the person's own happiness, but it is only one factor among many without any special preference compared to the happiness of others.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1d. Normative Hedonism, § 1f. Hedonistic Utilitarianism}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ II. Ethical Hedonism}} }}</ref> As a result, utilitarian hedonism sometimes requires of people to forego their own enjoyment to benefit others. For example, philosopher [[Peter Singer]] argues that good earners should donate a significant portion of their income to charities since this money can produce more happiness for people in need.<ref>{{harvnb|Singer|2016|pp=163, 165}}</ref>

Ethical hedonism is often understood as a form of [[consequentialism]], which asserts that an act is right if it has the best consequences. It is typically combined with axiological hedonism, which links the intrinsic value of consequences to pleasure and pain. As a result, the arguments for and against axiological hedonism also apply to ethical hedonism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Frykhol|Rutherford|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5KeaFMOoqbUC&pg=PA416 416]}} | {{harvnb|Robertson|Walter|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaN7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1d. Normative Hedonism, § 1e. Hedonistic Egoism, § 1f. Hedonistic Utilitarianism}} }}</ref>

=== Others ===
Aesthetic hedonism is a theory about the nature of [[aesthetic value]] or beauty. It states that a thing, like a landscape, a painting, or a song, has aesthetic value if people are pleased by it or get aesthetic pleasure from it. It is a [[Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|subjective]] theory because it focuses on how people respond to aesthetically engaging things. It contrasts with objective theories, which assert that aesthetic value only depends on objective or mind-independent features of things, like symmetry or harmonic composition. Some aesthetic hedonists believe that any type of pleasure is relevant to the aesthetic value of a thing. Others offer a more nuanced characterization, saying that aesthetic value is only based on how people with a well-developed [[Aesthetic taste|taste]] respond to it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Matthen|Weinstein|2020|loc=§ Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Van der Berg|2020|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Gorodeisky|2021|pp=1–2}} }}</ref>

Outside the academic contexts of philosophy and psychology, the word ''hedonism'' is often used in a more narrow sense as a pejorative term. Sometimes called ''folk hedonism'', it describes a lifestyle dedicated to the egoistic pursuit of short-term gratification. For example, a person who indulges in sex and drugs without concern for the long-term consequences of their behavior is acting hedonistically in this sense. The negative connotation of the term is associated with a lack of interest or foresight regarding the potential harm or ethical implications of such actions. Negative consequences can impact both the individual and the people around them, affecting areas such as health, financial stability, relationships, and societal responsibilities. Most philosophical hedonists reject the idea that a lifestyle characterized by folk hedonism leads to long-term happiness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 1a. Folk Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Buscicchi|loc=§ 1. Condensed Conceptual History, § 2. Paradoxes of Hedonism}} }}</ref>