Editing Green anarchism (section)

==History==
===Background===
Before the [[Industrial Revolution]], the only occurrences of [[ecological crisis]] were small-scale, localised to areas affected by [[natural disaster]]s, [[overproduction]] or [[war]]. But as the [[enclosure]] of [[common land]] increasingly forced dispossessed workers into factories, more wide-reaching ecological damage began to be noticed by [[classical radicalism|radicals]] of the period.{{Sfn|Parson|2018|p=220}}

During the late 19th century, as [[capitalism]] and [[colonialism]] were reaching their height, political philosophers first began to develop critiques of [[Industrialisation|industrialised society]], which had caused a rise in [[pollution]] and [[environmental degradation]]. In response, these early environmentalists developed a concern for [[nature conservation|nature]] and [[wildlife conservation]], [[soil erosion]], [[deforestation]], and [[natural resource management]].{{Sfn|Morris|2017|p=371}} Early political approaches to environmentalism were supplemented by the [[Naturalism (literature)|literary naturalism]] of writers such as [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[John Muir]] and [[Ernest Thompson Seton]],{{Sfnm|1a1=Hall|1y=2011|1p=379|2a1=Morris|2y=2017|2p=373}} whose best-selling works helped to alter the popular perception of nature by rejecting the dualistic "[[Conflict (narrative)#Man against nature|man against nature]]" conflict.{{Sfn|Morris|2017|p=373}} In particular, Thoreau's advocacy of [[anti-consumerism]] and [[vegetarianism]], as well as his love for the [[wilderness]], has been a direct inspiration for many eco-anarchists.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=379}}

[[Ecology]] in its modern form was developed by [[Charles Darwin]], whose work on [[evolutionary biology]] provided a scientific rejection of [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Cartesianism|Cartesian]] [[anthropocentrism]], instead emphasising the role of [[probability]] and [[Agency (philosophy)|individual agency]] in the process of [[evolution]].{{Sfn|Morris|2017|pp=373-374}} Around the same time, [[anarchism]] emerged as a political philosophy that rejected all forms of [[hierarchy]], [[authority]] and [[oppression]], and instead advocated for [[decentralisation]] and [[voluntary association]].{{Sfn|Hall|2011|pp=375-378}} The framework for an ecological anarchism was thus set in place, as a means to reject anthropocentric hierarchies that positioned humans in a dominating position over nature.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=375}}

===Roots===
The ecological roots of anarchism go back to the classical anarchists, such as [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin]], who both conceived of [[human nature]] as the basis for anarchism.{{Sfn|Price|2019|p=281}} Drawing from Charles Darwin's work,{{Sfn|Morris|2017|p=370}} Bakunin considered people to be an intrinsic part of their environment.{{Sfnm|1a1=Hall|1y=2011|1p=378|2a1=Morris|2y=2017|2p=370}} Bakunin rejected [[Cartesian dualism]], denying its [[anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]] and [[Mechanism (philosophy)|mechanistic]] separation of [[human]]ity from [[nature]].{{Sfn|Morris|2017|pp=370-371}} However, he also saw humans as uniquely capable of self-determination and called for humanity to achieve a mastery of its own natural environment as a means to achieve [[freedom]].{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=378}} Bakunin's [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] was developed into an [[Philosophy of ecology|ecological philosophy]] by the geographers [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Éliseé Reclus]], who conceived the relationship between human society and nature as a [[dialectic]]. Their [[environmental ethics]], which combined [[social justice]] with [[environmental protection]], anticipated the green anarchist philosophies of [[social ecology (Bookchin)|social ecology]] and [[bioregionalism]].{{Sfn|Morris|2017|p=371}}

[[File:Peter_Kropotkin_circa_1900.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait photograph of Peter Kropotkin|right|[[Peter Kropotkin]], an early environmentalist figure and a predecessor of the green anarchist tendency]]
Like Bakunin before him, Kropotkin extolled the [[domestication]] of nature by humans, but also framed humanity as an intrinsic part of its natural environment and placed great value in the natural world.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=378}} Kropotkin was among the first environmentalist thinkers to note the connections between industrialisation, environmental degradation and [[Marx's theory of alienation|workers' alienation]]. In contrast to [[Marxism|Marxists]], who called for an increase in industrialisation, Kropotkin argued for the [[Localism (politics)|localisation]] of the economy, which he felt would increase people's connection with the land and halt environmental damage.{{Sfn|Parson|2018|p=220}} In ''[[Fields, Factories and Workshops]]'', Kropotkin advocated for the satisfaction of human needs through [[horticulture]], and the [[decentralization|decentralisation]] and [[degrowth]] of industry.{{Sfn|Ward|2004|p=90}} He also criticised the [[division of labour]], both between [[White-collar worker|mental]] and [[manual labour]]ers, and between the [[peasants|rural peasantry]] and [[proletariat|urban proletariat]].{{Sfn|Parson|2018|pp=222-223}} In ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'', he elaborated on the natural basis for [[communism]],{{Sfn|Price|2019|p=281}} depicting the formation of [[social organization|social organisation]] among [[animals]] through the practice of [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]].{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=378}} 

Reclus himself argued that environmental degradation caused by industrialisation, exemplified to him by mass [[deforestation]] in the [[Pacific Northwest]], was characteristic of the "barbarity" of modern [[civilisation]], which he felt subordinated both workers and the environment to the goal of [[capital accumulation]].{{Sfn|Parson|2018|pp=222-223}} Reclus was also one of the earliest figures to develop the idea of "[[total liberation]]", directly comparing the [[exploitation of labour]] with [[cruelty to animals]] and thus advocating for both [[human rights|human]] and [[animal rights]].{{Sfn|Parson|2018|pp=220-221}} 

Kropotkin and Reclus' synthesis of environmental and social justice formed the foundation for [[eco-socialism]], chiefly associated with [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialists]] who advocated for a "[[Back to nature|return to nature]]", such as [[Robert Blatchford]], [[William Morris]] and [[Henry Stephens Salt|Henry Salt]].{{Sfn|Morris|2017|pp=372-373}} Ecological aspects of anarchism were also emphasised by [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]], who, drawing from the work of Henry David Thoreau, conceived of anarchism as a means to promote unity between humans and the natural world.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=379}} These early ecological developments in anarchism lay the foundations for the elaboration of green anarchism in the 1960s, when it was first taken up by figures within the [[New Left]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Morris|1y=2017|1p=374|2a1=Parson|2y=2018|2pp=220-223}}

===Development===
Green anarchism first emerged after the dawn of the [[Atomic Age]], as increasingly [[centralized government]]s brought with them a new host of [[environmental issues|environmental]] and [[social issue]]s.{{Sfn|Price|2019|pp=281-282}} During the 1960s, the rise of the [[environmental movement]] coincided with a concurrent revival of interest in anarchism, leading to anarchists having a considerable influence on the development of [[Radical environmentalism|radical environmentalist thought]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Carter|1y=2002|1p=13|2a1=Curran|2y=2004|2p=40}} Principles and practices that already formed the core of anarchist philosophy, from [[direct action]] to [[community organizing]], thus became foundational to radical environmentalism.{{Sfn|Curran|2004|pp=40-41}} As the threats presented by [[environmental degradation]], [[industrial agriculture]] and [[pollution]] became more urgent, the first green anarchists turned to [[decentralisation]] and [[Biodiversity|diversity]] as solutions for [[socio-ecological system]]s.{{Sfn|Price|2019|p=282}}

[[File:Murray_Bookchin.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Portrait photograph of Murray Bookchin|[[Murray Bookchin]], a founding figure of green anarchism and the chief proponent of [[social ecology (Bookchin)|social ecology]]]]
Green anarchism as a tendency was first developed by the American social anarchist [[Murray Bookchin]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Curran|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Gordon|2y=2009|2p=1|3a1=Price|3y=2019|3p=282|4a1=Ward|4y=2004|4p=93}} Bookchin had already began addressing the problem of environmental degradation as far back as the 1950s.{{Sfnm|1a1=Price|1y=2019|1p=282|2a1=Ward|2y=2004|2p=93}} In 1962, he published the first major modern work of [[environmentalism]], ''[[Our Synthetic Environment]]'', which warned of the ecological dangers of [[pesticide application]].{{Sfn|Parson|2018|p=221}} Over the subsequent decades, Bookchin developed the first theory of green anarchism, [[social ecology (Bookchin)|social ecology]],{{Sfnm|1a1=Parson|1y=2018|1p=221|2a1=Price|2y=2019|2p=282}} which presented social [[hierarchy]] as the root of ecological problems.{{Sfnm|1a1=Curran|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Gordon|2y=2009|2p=1|3a1=Parson|3y=2018|3p=221|4a1=Price|4y=2019|4p=282}}

In 1973, Norwegian philosopher [[Arne Næss]] developed another green anarchist tendency, known as [[deep ecology]], which rejected of [[anthropocentrism]] in favour of [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]].{{Sfn|Price|2019|p=287}} In 1985, this philosophy was developed into a political programme by the American academics [[Bill Devall]] and [[George Sessions]], while Australian philosopher [[Warwick Fox]] proposed the formation of [[bioregion]]s as a green anarchist alternative to the [[nation state]].{{Sfn|Price|2019|pp=287-288}} 

Following on from deep ecology,{{Sfnm|1a1=Parson|1y=2018|1pp=223-224|2a1=Price|2y=2019|2p=289}} the next major development in green anarchist philosophy was the articulation of [[anarcho-primitivism]], which was critical of [[agriculture]], [[technology]] and [[civilisation]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Gordon|1y=2009|1pp=1-2|2a1=Parson|2y=2018|2pp=223-224|3a1=Price|3y=2019|3p=289}} First developed in the pages of the American anarchist magazine ''[[Fifth Estate (periodical)|Fifth Estate]]'' during the mid-1980s, anarcho-primitivist theory was developed by [[Fredy Perlman]], David Watson,{{Sfn|Gordon|2009|pp=1-2}} and particularly [[John Zerzan]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Gordon|1y=2009|1pp=1-2|2a1=Price|2y=2019|2p=289}} It was later taken up by the American periodical ''Green Anarchy'' and British periodical ''[[Green Anarchist]]'',{{Sfn|Gordon|2009|pp=1-2}} and partly inspired groups such as the [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF), [[Earth Liberation Front]] (ELF) and [[Individualists Tending to the Wild]] (ITS).{{Sfn|Parson|2018|pp=223-224}}

===From theory to practice===
[[File:Alf_israel_47.jpg|thumb|right|[[Political demonstration]] by the [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF) in [[Israel]]]]
By the 1970s, radical environmentalist groups had begun to carry out [[direct action]] against [[nuclear power]] infrastructure, with mobilisations of the [[anti-nuclear movement]] in France, Germany and the United States providing a direct continuity between contemporary environmentalism and the New Left of the 1960s.{{Sfn|Gordon|2009|p=1}} In the 1980s, green anarchist groups such as [[Earth First!]] started taking direct action against [[deforestation]], [[roadworks]] and [[industrial agriculture]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Gordon|1y=2009|1p=1|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2p=689|3a1=Price|3y=2019|3p=288}} They called their sabotage actions "monkey-wrenching", after [[Edward Abbey]]'s 1984 novel ''[[The Monkey Wrench Gang]]''.{{Sfn|Price|2019|p=288}} During the 1990s, the [[Road protest in the United Kingdom|road protest movements in the United Kingdom]] and [[Israel]] were also driven by eco-anarchists, while eco-anarchist action networks such as the [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF) and [[Earth Liberation Front]] (ELF) first rose to prominence.{{Sfn|Gordon|2009|p=1}} Eco-anarchist actions have included violent attacks, such as those carried out by cells of the [[Informal Anarchist Federation]] (IAF) and [[Individualists Tending to the Wild]] (ITS) against nuclear scientists and nanotechnology researchers respectively.<ref name="Nature2012">{{cite journal|title=Anarchists attack science|journal=Nature|volume=485|issue=7400|pages=561|date= 28 May 2012|doi=10.1038/485561a|pmid=22660296|last1=Phillips|first1=Leigh|bibcode=2012Natur.485..561P|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Demonstration 2004 AB.jpg|thumb|right|Political demonstration by the [[Anti-globalization movement|anti-globalisation movement]] (AGM) in [[Poland]]]]
As environmental degradation was accelerated by the rise of [[Economic globalization|economic globalisation]] and [[neoliberalism]], green anarchists broadened their scope of action from a specific environmentalist focus into one that agitated for [[global justice]].{{Sfn|Curran|2004|p=44}} Green anarchists were instrumental in the establishment of the [[anti-globalization movement|anti-globalisation movement]] (AGM), as well as its transformation into the subsequent [[global justice movement]] (GJM).{{Sfn|Curran|2004|pp=44-45}} The AGM gained support in both the [[Global North and Global South]], with the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] (EZLN) becoming a key organisation within the movement.{{Sfn|Curran|2004|pp=45-46}} It also gained a wide range of support from different sectors of society, not only including [[activist]]s from [[left-wing politics]] or the environmental and peace movements, but also people from [[trade union]]s, church groups and the agricultural sector. Trade unionists were the most prominent presence at the [[1999 Seattle WTO protests]], even outnumbering the environmentalists and anarchists.{{Sfn|Curran|2004|p=46}} Drawing from its anarchist roots, the AGM adopted a decentralised and non-hierarchical model of [[flat organization|horizontal organisation]], embracing new "anarchical" technologies such as the [[internet]] as a means to network and communicate.{{Sfn|Curran|2004|pp=46-47}} Through the environmental and anti-globalisation movements, [[contemporary anarchism]] was ultimately able to achieve a "quasi-renaissance" in anarchist ideas, tendencies and modes of organisation.{{Sfn|Curran|2004|pp=49-50}}

=== Contemporary theoretical developments ===
Writers such as Murray Bookchin and [[Alan Carter (philosopher)|Alan Carter]] have claimed contemporary anarchism to be the only political movement capable of addressing [[climate change]].{{Sfn|Ward|2004|p=98}} In his 1996 book ''Ecology and Anarchism'', British anthropologist [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morris]] argued that anarchism is intrinsically environmentalist, as it shared the ecologist principles of decentralisation, non-hierarchical social organisation and interdependence.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=379}}

By the 21st century, green anarchists had begun to move beyond the previous century's divisions into social ecologist and anarcho-primitivist camps, establishing a new body of theory that rejected the dualisms of humanity against nature and civilisation against wilderness.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=383}} Drawing on the biocentric philosophy of deep ecology, in 2006, [[Mark Somma]] called for a "revolutionary environmentalism" capable of overthrowing [[capitalism]], reducing consumption and organising the [[Nature conservation|conservation]] of biodiversity.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|pp=383-384}} Somma championed a form of [[solidarity]] between humanity and the non-human natural world, in a call that was taken up in 2009 by [[Steven Best]], who called for eco-anarchists to commit themselves to "[[total liberation]]" and extend solidarity to animals.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|p=384}} To Best, [[morality]] ought to be extended to animals due to their [[sentience]] and capacity to feel [[pain]]; he has called for the abolition of the hierarchy between humans and animals, although he implicitly excludes non-sentient plants from this moral consideration.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|pp=384-385}}
Drawing from [[eco-feminism]], [[pattrice jones]] called for human solidarity with both plants and animals, neither of which she considered to be lesser than humans, even describing them as "natural anarchists" that do not recognise or obey any government's laws.{{Sfn|Hall|2011|pp=385-386}}

In 2012, Jeff Shantz developed a theory of "[[green syndicalism]]", which seeks to use of [[syndicalism|syndicalist]] models of workplace organisation to link the [[labour movement]] with the [[environmental movement]].{{Sfn|Parson|2018|p=221}}