Editing Georges-Eugène Haussmann (section)

==Biography==
===Origins and early career===
Haussmann was born on 27 March 1809, at 53 [[Quartier du Faubourg-du-Roule|Rue du Faubourg-du-Roule]], in the Beaujon neighbourhood of Paris, the son of Nicolas-Valentin Haussmann and Ève-Marie-Henriette-Caroline Dentzel, both of Alsatian families. His paternal grandfather {{ill|Nicolas Haussmann|fr}} was a deputy of the [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]] and National Convention, an administrator of the department of [[Seine-et-Oise]] and a [[commissioner]] to the army. His maternal grandfather was  a general and a deputy of the [[National Convention]]: {{ill|Georges Frédéric Dentzel|fr}}, a baron of [[First French Empire|Napoleon's First Empire]].

He began his schooling at the [[Lycée Henri-IV|Collège Henri-IV]] and the [[Lycée Condorcet]] in Paris and then began to study law. At the same time, he studied music as a student at the [[Paris Conservatoire|Paris Conservatory]], as he was a talented musician.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Haussmann, Georges Eugène, Baron|volume=13 |page=71}}</ref> Haussmann joined his father as an insurgent in the [[July Revolution]] of 1830, which deposed the Bourbon king [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] in favor of his cousin, [[Louis Philippe I|Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans]].<ref>Kirkland, 2013; p. 76</ref>

He was married to Octavie de Laharpe on 17 October 1838 in [[Bordeaux]]. They had two daughters:  Henriette, who married the banker Camille Dollfus in 1860, and Valentine, who married Vicomte Maurice Pernéty, the chief of staff of his department, in 1865. Valentine divorced Pernéty in 1891 and then married Georges Renouard (1843–1897).

On 21 May 1831, Haussmann began his career in public administration. He was named the [[secretary-general]] of the prefecture of the Department of [[Vienne (department)|Vienne]] at [[Poitiers]]. On 15 June 1832, he became the deputy prefect of [[Yssingeaux]]. Despite proving himself as a hard worker and able representative of the government, his arrogance, dictatorial manner, and habit of impeding his superiors led to his being continually passed over for promotion to [[Prefect (France)|prefect]].<ref>Kirkland, 2013; p. 77</ref> He was posted as deputy prefect to the [[Lot-et-Garonne]] Department at [[Nérac]] on 9 October 1832, the [[Ariège (department)|Ariège]] Department at [[Saint-Girons, Ariège|Saint-Girons]] on 19 February 1840, and the [[Gironde]] Department at [[Blaye]] on 23 November 1841. 

After the [[French Revolution of 1848|1848 Revolution]] swept away the July Monarchy, establishing the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] in its place, Haussmann's fortunes changed. In 1848, [[Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte]], the nephew of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], became the first elected president of France. In January 1849, Haussmann travelled to Paris to meet the [[Minister of the Interior (France)|Minister of the Interior]] and the new president. He was deemed to be a loyal holdover from the civil service of the July Monarchy, and shortly after their meeting Louis Napoléon granted Haussmann a promotion to prefect of the [[Var (departement)|Var]] Department at [[Draguignan]].<ref name="auto">Kirkland, 2013; p. 78</ref> In 1850, he became the prefect of the [[Yonne]] Department. In 1851 was appointed as prefect of the [[Gironde]] out of [[Bordeaux]].<ref name="auto"/>

In 1850, Louis Napoléon started an ambitious project to connect the [[Louvre]] to the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] in Paris, by extending the [[Rue de Rivoli]] and create a new park, the [[Bois de Boulogne]], on the outskirts of the city, but he was exasperated by the slow progress made by the incumbent prefect of the Seine, Jean-Jacques Berger. Louis-Napoleon was highly popular, but he was blocked from running for re-election by the [[constitution]] of the [[Second French Republic]]. While he had a majority of the votes in the legislature at his disposal, he did not have the two-thirds majority needed to change the constitution.<ref>Maneglier, Hervé, ''Paris Impérial'', p.  20</ref>

At the end of December 1851, he staged a ''[[coup d'état]]'', and in 1852 declared himself Emperor of the French under the title Napoleon III. In November 1852, a plebiscite overwhelmingly approved Napoleon's assumption of the throne, and he soon began searching for a new prefect of the Seine to carry out his Paris reconstruction program.<ref>Maneglier, Hervé, ''Paris Impérial'', p.  20</ref>

The emperor's minister of the interior, [[Victor de Persigny]], interviewed the prefects of Rouen, Lille, Lyon, Marseille and Bordeaux for the Paris post. In his memoirs, he described his interview with Haussmann:

<blockquote>"It was Monsieur Haussmann who impressed me the most. It was a strange thing, but it was less his talents and his remarkable intelligence that appealed to me, but the defects in his character. I had in front of me one of the most extraordinary men of our time; big, strong, vigorous, energetic, and at the same time clever and devious, with a spirit full of resources.  This audacious man wasn't afraid to show who he was.&nbsp;... He told me all of his accomplishments during his administrative career, leaving out nothing; he could have talked for six hours without a break, since it was his favourite subject, himself. I wasn't at all displeased.&nbsp;... It seemed to me that he was exactly the man I needed to fight against the ideas and prejudices of a whole school of economics, against devious people and skeptics coming from the Stock Market, against those who were not very scrupulous about their methods; he was just the man.  Whereas a gentleman of the most elevated spirit, cleverness, with the most straight and noble character, would inevitably fail, this vigorous athlete&nbsp;... full of audacity and skill, capable of opposing expedients with better expedients, traps with more clever traps, would certainly succeed. I told him about the Paris works and offered to put him in charge."<ref>Persigny, ''Memoires'' (1890). Quoted in Maneglier, Hervé, ''Paris Impérial'', p. 20</ref></blockquote>

Persigny sent him to Napoleon III with the recommendation that he was exactly the man needed to carry out his renewal plans for Paris. On 22 June 1853, Napoleon made him prefect of the Seine. On 29 June, the emperor gave him the mission of making the city healthier, less congested and grander. Haussmann held this post until 1870.<ref>Patrick Camiller, ''Haussmann: His Life & Times and the Making of Modern Paris'' (2002) ch 1–2</ref>

===Rebuilding of Paris===
{{Main|Haussmann's renovation of Paris}}
[[File:Adolphe Yvon - Haussmann présente à l'Empereur le plan d'annexion des Communes.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|
Napoleon handing over to Baron Haussmann the decree of annexation of suburban communes to Paris, 1860, by [[Adolphe Yvon]]. The annexation increased the city from twelve [[Arrondissements of Paris|to the present twenty arrondissements]].]] 
[[File:PISSARRO Camille L'Avenue de l'Opéra Huile sur toile.jpg|thumb|The [[Avenue de l'Opéra]], one of the new boulevards created by Napoleon III and Haussmann. The new buildings on the boulevards were required to have the same height and basic façade design, and all [[Lutetian limestone|faced with cream-coloured stone]], giving central Paris its distinctive harmony.]]
[[Napoleon III]] and Haussmann launched a series of enormous public works projects in Paris, hiring tens of thousands of workers to improve the sanitation, water supply and traffic circulation of the city. Napoleon III installed a huge map of Paris in his office, marked with coloured lines where he wanted new boulevards to be. To a degree the boulevard system was planned as a mechanism for the easy deployment of troops and artillery, but its main purpose was to help relieve traffic congestion in a dense city and interconnect its landmark buildings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=334}}</ref> He and Haussmann met almost every day to discuss the projects and overcome the enormous obstacles and opposition they faced as they built the new Paris.<ref>De Moncan, Patrice (2009), ''Les jardins du Baron Haussmann'', p. 15.</ref>

The population of Paris had doubled since 1815, with no increase in its area. To accommodate the growing population and those who would be forced from the centre by the new boulevards and squares Napoleon III planned to build, he issued a decree annexing eleven surrounding communes, and increasing the number of arrondissements from twelve to twenty, which enlarged the city to its modern boundaries.

For the nearly two decades of Napoleon III's reign, and for a decade afterwards, most of Paris was an enormous construction site. To bring fresh water to the city, his hydraulic engineer, [[Eugène Belgrand]], built a new aqueduct to bring clean water from the [[Vanne (river)|Vanne River]] in Champagne, and a new huge reservoir near the future Parc Montsouris. These two works increased the water supply of Paris from 87,000 to 400,000 cubic metres of water a day.<ref>De Moncan, Patrice (2009), ''Les jardins du Baron Haussmann'' p. 21</ref> 

He laid hundreds of kilometres of pipes to distribute the water throughout the city. He built a second network, using the less-clean water from the Ourq and the Seine, to wash the streets and water the new park and gardens. He completely rebuilt the Paris sewers, and installed miles of pipes to distribute gas for thousands of new streetlights along the Paris streets.<ref>Milza, Pierre (2006), ''Napoleon III'', Editions Perrin ({{ISBN|978-2-262-02607-3}})</ref>

Beginning in 1854, in the centre of the city, Haussmann's workers tore down hundreds of old buildings and cut eighty kilometres of new avenues, connecting the central points of the city. Buildings along these avenues were required to be the same height and in a similar style, and to be faced with cream-coloured stone, creating the uniform look of Paris boulevards. Victor Hugo mentioned that it was hardly possible to distinguish what the house in front of you was for: theatre, shop or library. Haussmann managed to rebuild the city in 17 years. "On his own estimation the new boulevards and open spaces displaced 350,000 people;&nbsp;... by 1870 one-fifth of the streets in central Paris were his creation; he had spent&nbsp;... 2.5 billion francs on the city;&nbsp;... one in five Parisian workers was employed in the building trade".<ref>Clark, T.J. (1984), ''The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Monet and his Followers''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 37</ref>

[[File:Paris Opéra Garnier Fassade 1.jpg|thumb|The [[Paris Opera]] was the centerpiece of Napoleon III's new Paris. The architect, [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], described the style simply as "Napoleon the Third".]]
To connect the city with the rest of France, Napoleon III built two new railroad stations: the [[Gare de Lyon]] (1855) and the [[Gare du Nord]] (1864). He completed [[Les Halles]], the great iron and glass produce market in the centre of the city, and built a new municipal hospital, the [[Hôtel-Dieu, Paris|Hôtel-Dieu]], in the place of crumbling medieval buildings on the Ile de la Cité. The signature architectural landmark was the [[Paris Opera]], the largest theatre in the world, designed by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], crowning the center of Napoleon III's new Paris. When the [[Eugenie de Montijo|Empress Eugenie]] saw the model of the opera house, and asked the architect what the style was, Garnier said simply, "Napoleon the Third."<ref>Ayers, Andrew (2004). ''The Architecture of Paris''. Stuttgart; London: Edition Axel Menges. {{ISBN|978-3-930698-96-7}}.</ref>

Napoleon III also wanted to build new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighbourhoods of the expanding city.<ref name="Jarrasse, Dominique 2007">Jarrasse, Dominique (2007), ''Grammaire des jardins parisiens'', Parigramme.</ref>
[[File:Bois de Boulogne.jpeg|thumb|The [[Bois de Boulogne]], built by Napoleon III and Haussmann between 1852 and 1858, was designed to give a place for relaxation and recreation to all the classes of Paris.]]

Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of the parks in London, especially [[Hyde Park (London)|Hyde Park]], where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile, but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann and [[Adolphe Alphand]], the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, he laid out a plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the city. Thousands of workers and gardeners began to dig lakes, build cascades, plant lawns, flowerbeds, trees, and construct chalets and grottoes. Napoleon III created the [[Bois de Boulogne]] (1852–58) to the west of Paris, the [[Bois de Vincennes]] (1860–65) to the east, the [[Parc des Buttes Chaumont]] (1865–67) to the north, and [[Parc Montsouris]] (1865–78) to the south.<ref name="Jarrasse, Dominique 2007"/>

In addition to building the four large parks, Haussmann had the city's older parks, including [[Parc Monceau]], formerly owned by the Orleans family, and the [[Jardin du Luxembourg]], refurbished and replanted. He created twenty small parks and gardens in the neighbourhoods, as miniature versions of his large parks. Alphand termed these small parks "green and flowering salons." The intention of Napoleon's plan was to have one park in each of the eighty neighbourhoods of Paris, so no one was more than 10 minutes walk from a park. The parks were an immediate success with all classes of Parisians.<ref>Jarrasse, Dominque (2007), ''Grammmaire des jardins Parisiens'', Parigramme. p. 134</ref>

==="Baron Haussmann"===
To thank Haussmann for his work, Napoleon III proposed in 1857 to make Haussmann a member of the French Senate and to give him an honorary title, as he had done for some of his generals.  Haussmann asked for the title of baron, which, as he said in his memoirs, had been the title of his maternal grandfather, Georges Frédéric, Baron Dentzel, a general under Napoleon I, of whom Haussmann was the only living male descendant.<ref>Moncan, Patrice de, ''Le Paris d'Haussmann''</ref><ref>{{in lang|fr}} Baron Haussmann, ''Mémoires'', trois tomes publiés en 1890 et 1893. Nouvelle édition établie par [[Françoise Choay]], Seuil, 2000. See also [http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-86063 l'exemplaire de Gallica].</ref> According to his memoirs, he joked that he might consider the title ''aqueduc'' (a pun on the French words for 'duke' and 'aqueduct') but that no such title existed.   This use of ''baron'', however, was not officially sanctioned, and he remained, legally, Monsieur Haussmann.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nagram.chez-alice.fr/haussmannbio.php|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022025436/http://nagram.chez-alice.fr/haussmannbio.php|title=Le Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann (Biographie)|archivedate=22 October 2007}}</ref>

===Downfall===
During the first half of the reign of Napoleon III, the French legislature had little real power. All decisions were made by the Emperor.  Beginning in 1860, however, Napoleon decided to liberalise the Empire and give legislators power. The members of the opposition in the parliament increasingly aimed their criticism of Napoleon III at Haussmann, criticising his spending and high-handed attitude toward the parliament.

The cost of the reconstruction projects was also rising rapidly.  In December 1858 the Council of State ruled that a property owner whose land was expropriated could retain the land that was not specifically needed for the street, greatly increasing the cost of expropriation.  Property owners also became much more clever in claiming higher payments for their buildings, often by creating sham shops and businesses within their buildings.  The cost of expropriations jumped from 70 million francs for the first projects to about 230 million francs for the second wave of projects.<ref>De Moncan, ''Le paris d'Haussmann'', p. 123.</ref>

In 1858, the Cour des Comptes, which oversaw the finances of the Empire, ruled that the Caisses des Grands Travaux was operating illegally by making "disguised loans" to private companies. The court ruled that such loans had to be approved by the parliament.  The parliament was asked to approve a loan of 250 millions francs in 1865, and another 260 million francs in 1869.<ref>De Moncan, ''Le paris d'Haussmann'', p. 123.</ref>

The members of the opposition were particularly outraged when in 1866 he took away part of the Luxembourg to make room for the new avenue between the Luxembourg Gardens and the Observatory, and destroyed the old garden nursery which lay between rue Auguste Comte, rue d'Assas and the avenue de l'Observatoire.  When the Emperor and Empress attended a performance at the Odeon Theater, near the Luxembourg gardens, members of the audience shouted "Dismiss Haussmann!" and jeered the Emperor.<ref>De Moncan, ''Le paris d'Haussmann'', p. 123.</ref> Nonetheless, the Emperor stood by Haussmann.
[[File:Mémoires Haussmann 1890.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.7|Title page of ''Memoires'' by Haussmann, Victor Havard Publisher, 1890.]]

One of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon, [[Jules François Camille Ferry|Jules Ferry]], ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as ''Les Comptes fantastiques de Haussmann'', or "The fantastic accounts of Haussmann", in 1867, a play on words of "Les Contes Fantastiques de Hoffmann", [[The Tales of Hoffmann|The Fantastical Tales of Hoffmann]].<ref name="EB1911"/> The republican opposition to Napoleon III won many parliamentary seats in the [[1869 French legislative election|1869 elections]], and increased its criticism of Haussmann.  

Napoleon III gave in to the criticism and named an opposition leader and fierce critic of Haussmann, [[Emile Ollivier]], as his new prime minister.   Haussmann was invited to resign.  Haussmann refused to resign, and was relieved of his duties by the Emperor.  Six months later, during the [[Franco-German War]], Napoleon III was captured by the Germans, and the Empire was overthrown.

In his memoires, Haussmann had this comment on his dismissal: "In the eyes of the Parisians, who like routine in things but are changeable when it comes to people, I committed two great wrongs; over the course of seventeen years I disturbed their daily habits by turning Paris upside down, and they had to look at the same face of the Prefect in the Hotel de Ville.  These were two unforgivable complaints."<ref>Haussmann, ''Mémoires'', cited in Maneglier, Hervé, ''Paris Impérial'', p. 262.</ref>

After the fall of Napoleon III, Haussmann spent about a year abroad, but he re-entered public life in 1877, when he became [[Bonapartist]] deputy for [[Ajaccio]].<ref name="EB1911"/> His later years were occupied with the preparation of his ''Mémoires'' (three volumes, 1890–1893).<ref name="EB1911"/>

===Death===
Haussmann died in Paris on 11 January 1891 at age 81 and was buried in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]]. His wife, Louise-Octavie de la Harpe, had died just eighteen days earlier.  At the time of their deaths, they had resided in an apartment at 12 rue Boissy d'Anglas, near the [[Place de la Concorde]]. The will transferred their estate to the family of their only surviving daughter, Valentine Haussmann.<ref>David P. Jordan (1995).  Transforming Paris: the life and labors of Baron Haussmann.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 1–3.</ref>