Editing Geoffrey Chaucer (section)

==Life==
===Origin===
[[File:ChaucerArms Ancient.svg|thumb|left|upright|Arms of Geoffrey Chaucer: ''Per pale argent and gules, a bend counterchanged.'']]

Chaucer was born in London, most likely in the early 1340s (by some accounts, including his monument, he was born in 1343), though the precise date and location remain unknown. The Chaucer family offers an extraordinary example of upward mobility. His great-grandfather was a tavern keeper, his grandfather worked as a purveyor of wines, and his father, John Chaucer, rose to become an important wine merchant with a royal appointment.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Echard|first1=Sian|last2=Rouse|first2=Robert|title=The Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature in Britain, 4 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UXoqDwAAQBAJ&q=chaucer+wine+purveyor&pg=PA425|page=425|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118396988|year=2017|access-date=11 September 2021}}</ref> Several previous generations of Geoffrey Chaucer's family had been [[vintners]]<ref name="Brewer1992">{{cite book|author=Derek Brewer|title=Chaucer and His World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_l3StHI3nBUC&pg=PA18|year=1992|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=978-0-85991-366-9|pages=18–19}}</ref><ref name="Turner2019">{{cite book|author=Marion Turner|title=Chaucer: A European Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA2GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|date=9 April 2019|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-16009-2|page=26}}</ref> and merchants in [[Ipswich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Briggs |first1=Keith |title=The Ipswich ancestors of Geoffrey Chaucer |journal=Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History |date=2024 |volume=45 |issue=4 |page=691-701}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Briggs |first1=Keith |title=The Malins in Chaucer's Ipswich Ancestry |journal=[[Notes and Queries]] |date=June 2019 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=201–202 |doi=10.1093/notesj/gjz004}}</ref> His family name is derived from the French ''chaucier'', once thought to mean 'shoemaker', but now known to mean a maker of [[Chausses|hose or leggings]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland |chapter=Chaucer |editor1-last=Hanks |editor1-first=Patrick |editor1-link=Patrick Hanks |editor2-last=Coates |editor2-first=Richard |editor2-link=Richard Coates |editor3-last=McClure |editor3-first=Peter |publisher=Oxford UP |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-967776-4 | url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677764.001.0001/acref-9780199677764-e-07364}}</ref>

In 1324, his father, John Chaucer, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the 12-year-old to her daughter in an attempt to keep the Ipswich property in the family.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Larry Dean |title=The Riverside Chaucer |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=xi}}</ref> The aunt was imprisoned and fined £250, now equivalent to about £{{Inflation|UK|250|1324|r=-5|fmt=c}}, suggesting that the family was financially secure.<ref>Skeat, W. W., ed. ''The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899; Vol. I, pp. xi–xii.</ref>

John Chaucer married Agnes Copton, who inherited properties in 1349, including 24 shops in London, from her uncle Hamo de Copton, who is described in a will dated 3&nbsp;April 1354 and listed in the City Hustings Roll as "moneyer", said to be a [[moneyer]] at the [[Tower of London]]. In the City Hustings Roll 110, 5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Chaucer refers to himself as ''me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie'', which translates as: "I, Geoffrey Chaucer, son of the vintner John Chaucer, London".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer: Romaunt of the rose. Minor poems |date=1894 |publisher=Clarendon Press |pages=13, 14}}</ref>

===Career===
[[File:Ellesmere Chaucer, mssEL 26 C 9, folio 153v color enhanced.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Chaucer as a pilgrim, in the early 15th-century illuminated [[Ellesmere manuscript]] of the ''Canterbury Tales'']]
Although records of the lives of Chaucer's contemporaries [[William Langland]] and the [[Gawain Poet]] are practically non-existent, Chaucer was a public servant whose official life was very well documented. Nearly 500 written items testify to his career. The first of the "Chaucer Life Records" appears in 1357, in the household accounts of [[Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster|Elizabeth de Burgh]], the [[Countess of Ulster]], when he became the noblewoman's page through his father's connections,<ref>Skeat (1899); Vol. I, p. xvii.</ref> a common medieval form of apprenticeship for boys into knighthood or prestige appointments. The countess was married to [[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence]], the second surviving son of the king, [[Edward III]], and the position brought the teenage Chaucer into the close court circle, where he was to remain for the rest of his life. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the King's Works.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Critical Companion to Chaucer: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work |last1=Rossignol |first1=Rosalyn |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |pages=551, 613 |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8160-6193-8}}</ref>

In 1359, in the early stages of the [[Hundred Years' War]], Edward III invaded France, and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth's husband, as part of the [[History of the British Army|English army]]. In 1360, he was captured during the [[siege of Rheims]]. Edward paid £16 for his ransom,<ref>''Chaucer Life Records'', p. 24.</ref> a considerable sum {{Inflation|UK|value=16|start_year=1360|fmt=eq|cursign=£}},{{Inflation/fn|UK}} and Chaucer was released.

[[File:ChaucerCrest EwelmeChurch Oxfordshire.png|thumb|Chaucer crest ''A unicorn's head'' with [[canting arms]] of Roet below: ''Gules, three Catherine Wheels or'' (French ''rouet'' = "spinning wheel"). [[Ewelme]] Church, Oxfordshire. Possibly funeral helm of his son [[Thomas Chaucer]]]]
After this, Chaucer's life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, and [[Flanders]], possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimage]] to [[Santiago de Compostela]]. Around 1366, Chaucer married [[Philippa (de) Roet]]. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, [[Philippa of Hainault]], and a sister of [[Katherine Swynford]], who later ({{Circa|1396}}) became the third wife of [[John of Gaunt]]. It is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, [[Thomas Chaucer]], had an illustrious career as [[Chief Butler of England|chief butler]] to four kings, envoy to France, and [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House of Commons]]. Thomas's daughter, [[Alice de la Pole|Alice]], married the [[William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk|Duke of Suffolk]]. Thomas's great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), [[John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln]], was the heir to the throne designated by [[Richard III]] before he was deposed. Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at [[Barking Abbey]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Medieval English Nunneries, c. 1275 to 1535 |last=Power |first=Eileen |year=1988 |publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ll6BuF4-kgC&pg=PA19 |access-date=19 December 2007 |isbn=978-0-8196-0140-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Chaucer and His England |last=Coulton |first=G. G. |year=2006 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |page=74 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tgP7qB4Br-4C&pg=PA74 |access-date=19 December 2007 |isbn=978-1-4286-4247-8}}</ref> Agnes, an attendant at [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]'s coronation; and another son, Lewis Chaucer. Chaucer's "Treatise on the Astrolabe" was written for Lewis.<ref>Rossignol, Rosalyn. ''Chaucer A to Z: The Essential Reference to his Life and Works''. New York: 1999, pp. 72–73 and 75–77.</ref>

According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the [[Inner Temple]] (an [[Inns of Court|Inn of Court]]) at this time. He became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a ''[[valet de chambre]]'', [[yeoman]], or [[esquire]] on 20&nbsp;June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment. He travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to [[Violante Visconti]], daughter of [[Galeazzo II Visconti]], in [[Milan]]. Two other literary stars of the era were in attendance: [[Jean Froissart]] and [[Petrarch]]. Around this time, Chaucer is believed to have written ''[[The Book of the Duchess]]'' in honour of [[Blanche of Lancaster]], the late wife of John of Gaunt, who died in 1369 of the plague.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Holt Literature and Language Arts |publisher=Holt, Rinehart, and Winston |year=2003 |isbn=978-0030573743 |pages=113}}</ref>

Chaucer travelled to [[Picardy]] the next year as part of a military expedition; in 1373, he visited [[Genoa]] and [[Florence]]. Numerous scholars such as Skeat, Boitani, and Rowland<ref>''Companion to Chaucer Studies'', rev. ed., Oxford UP, 1979.</ref> have suggested that, on this Italian trip, [[Chaucer coming in contact with Petrarch or Boccaccio|he came into contact with Petrarch or Boccaccio]]. They introduced him to [[medieval]] [[Italian poetry]], the forms and stories of which he would use later.<ref>Hopper, p. viii: "He may actually have met Petrarch, and his reading of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio provided him with subject matter as well as inspiration for later writings."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Legend of Thebes and Literary Patricide in Chaucer, Boccaccio, and Statius |last=Schwebel |first=Leah |journal=Studies in the Age of Chaucer |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=139–68 |year=2014 |doi=10.1353/sac.2014.0028|s2cid=194954865 }}</ref> The purposes of a voyage in 1377 are mysterious, as details within the historical record conflict. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future King [[Richard II]] and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years' War. If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful, as no wedding occurred.

In 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer as an envoy (secret dispatch) to the Visconti and Sir [[John Hawkwood]], English [[condottiere]] (mercenary leader) in Milan.<ref name="Benson"/> It has been speculated that it was Hawkwood on whom Chaucer based his character, the Knight, in the ''Canterbury Tales'', for a description matches that of a 14th-century condottiere.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Caferro |first1=William |title=John Hawkwood: An English Mercenary in Fourteenth-Century Italy |date=2006 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |page=200}}</ref>

[[File:Geoffrey Chaucer.jpeg|thumb|left|A 19th-century depiction of Chaucer]]
A possible indication that his career as a writer was appreciated came when Edward III granted Chaucer "a gallon of wine daily for the rest of his life" for some unspecified task.<ref name="Benson"/> This was an unusual grant, but given on a day of celebration, [[St George's Day]], 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to have been for another early poetic work. It is not known which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the reward, but the suggestion of him as a poet to a king places him as a precursor to later [[poets laureate]]. Chaucer continued to collect the liquid stipend until Richard II came to power, after which it was converted to a monetary grant on 18&nbsp;April 1378.<ref name="Benson">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Larry Dean |title=The Riverside Chaucer |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=xv, xvi, xvii}}</ref>

Chaucer obtained the very substantial job of [[comptroller]] of the customs for the port of London, which he began on 8&nbsp;June 1374.<ref>Morley, Henry (1890) ''English Writers: an attempt towards a history of English literature''. London: Cassell & Co.; Vol. V. p. 106.</ref> He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years, a long time in such a post at that time. His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years, but it is believed that he wrote (or began) most of his famous works during this period. Chaucer's "only surviving handwriting" dates from this period. This is a request for temporary leave from work presented to King Richard II, hitherto believed to be the work of one of his subordinates due to the low level of language.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Geoffrey Chaucer note asking for time off work identified as his handwriting |work=The Guardian |date=10 July 2023 |last=Alberge |first=Dalya |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/jul/10/geoffrey-chaucer-note-asking-for-time-off-work-identified-as-his-handwriting |access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref>

On 16 October 1379, Thomas Staundon filed a legal action against his former servant Cecily Chaumpaigne and Chaucer, accusing Chaucer of unlawfully employing Chaumpaigne before her term of service was completed, which violated the [[Statute of Labourers]].{{sfn|Roger|Sobecki|2022a|p=420}} Though eight court documents dated between October 1379 and July 1380 survive the action,{{sfn|Roger|Sobecki|2022a|p=407-410}} the case was never prosecuted. No details survive about Chaumpaigne's service or how she came to leave Staundon's employ for Chaucer's.{{sfn|Roger|Sobecki|2022a|p=424}}{{efn|[[Frederick James Furnivall]] discovered the case in 1873 via a [[quitclaim]] filed by Chaumpaigne releasing Chaucer from any legal responsibility for "all manner of actions related to [her] [[raptus]]" (Latin: "omnimodas acciones, tam de raptu meo"). Furnivall, Chaucer biographers, and feminist scholars speculated that Chaucer may have raped or abducted Chaumpaigne. However, in 2022, Euan Roger and [[Sebastian Sobecki]] discovered two additional documents from the case in the [[British National Archives]], revealing that "raptus" referred to the illegal transfer of service from Staundon's household to Chaucer's and that the case was a labour dispute in which Chaucer and Chaumpaigne were co-defendants.{{sfn|Roger|Sobecki|2022a|p=407-411}}<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Roger |first1=Euan |last2=Sobecki |first2=Sebastian |year=2022b |title=Geoffrey Chaucer and Cecily Chaumpaigne: Rethinking the record |url=https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/geoffrey-chaucer-and-cecily-chaumpaigne-rethinking-the-record/? |website=UK National Archives}}</ref> Roger and Prescott commented that "the carefully curated, small-scale world of literary manuscripts...is far removed from the vast scale of government archives...[this discovery] demonstrates that there is more to be found".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roger |first1=Euan |last2=Prescott |first2=Andrew |title=The Archival Iceberg: New Sources for Literary Life-Records |journal=The Chaucer Review |date=1 October 2022 |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=498–526 |doi=10.5325/chaucerrev.57.4.0498|s2cid=252860263 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}

[[File:Blue plaque, Tabard Inn.jpg|thumb|right|[[Blue plaque]] at the site of [[the Tabard]] inn in [[Southwark]], London where in 1386 the pilgrims in ''The Canterbury Tales'' set off to visit [[Canterbury Cathedral]]]]
While still working as comptroller, Chaucer appears to have moved to [[Kent]], being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent at a time when French invasion was a possibility. He is thought to have started work on ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' in the early 1380s. He also became a member of parliament (a [[knight of the shire]]) for Kent in 1386 and attended the '[[Wonderful Parliament]]' that year. He appears to have been present at most of the 71 days it sat, for which he was paid £24 9s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=F. R. |year=1943 |title=Chaucer and the Parliament of 1386 |journal=Speculum |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=80–86 |oclc=25967434 |doi=10.2307/2853640 |jstor=2853640|s2cid=159965790 }}</ref> On 15&nbsp;October that year, he gave a deposition in the case of ''[[Scrope v. Grosvenor]]''.<ref name=Harris>{{Cite book |title=The controversy between Sir Richard Scrope and Sir Robert Grosvenor, in the Court of Chivalry |last=Nicolas |first=Sir N. Harris |volume=II |page=[https://archive.org/details/decontroversiai01scrogoog/page/n428 404] |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/decontroversiai01scrogoog |year=1832 |access-date=2 June 2014}}</ref> There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife. She is presumed to have died in 1387. He survived the political upheavals caused by the [[Lords Appellant]]s, despite the fact that Chaucer knew some of the men executed over the affair quite well.

On 12 July 1389, Chaucer was appointed the [[Clerk of the Works|clerk of the king's works]], a sort of [[Construction foreman|foreman]] organising most of the king's building projects.<ref>Morley (1890), Vol. 5, p. 245.</ref> No major works were begun during his tenure, but he did conduct repairs on [[Westminster Palace]], [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor]], continued building the wharf at the Tower of London and built the stands for a tournament held in 1390. It may have been a difficult job, but it paid two [[shilling]]s a day, more than three times his salary as a comptroller. Chaucer was also appointed keeper of the lodge at the King's Park in [[Feckenham Forest]] in [[Worcestershire]], which was a largely honorary appointment.<ref>Forest of Feckenham, John Humphreys FSA, in Birmingham and Warwickshire Archaeology Society's Transactions and proceedings, Volumes 44–45, p. 117.</ref>

===Later life===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Tomb of Geoffrey Chaucer at Poets' Corner.jpg
| footer = Left: tomb of Chaucer in [[Poets' Corner]], [[Westminster Abbey]], London. He was the first writer to be interred at the Abbey; the [[Purbeck Marble|Purbeck]] marble monument was erected in 1556. Right: stained glass window commemorating Chaucer in the north wall of [[Southwark Cathedral]].
| image2 = Stained glass window on the north wall at Southwark Cathedral - geograph.org.uk - 1257997.jpg
}}
In September 1390, records say that Chaucer was robbed and possibly injured while conducting the business, and he stopped working in this capacity on 17&nbsp;June 1391. He began as Deputy Forester in the royal forest of [[Petherton Park]] in [[North Petherton]], Somerset on 22&nbsp;June.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weiskott |first=Eric |date=1 January 2013 |title=Chaucer the Forester: The Friar's Tale, Forest History, and Officialdom |jstor=10.5325/chaucerrev.47.3.0323 |journal=The Chaucer Review |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=323–336 |doi=10.5325/chaucerrev.47.3.0323|s2cid=162585929 }}</ref> It involved administering an area which included moorland, cultivated fields, villages and a forest.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrew |first1=M. |title=The Palgrave Literary Dictionary of Chaucer |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |page=60}}</ref>

Richard II granted him an annual pension of 20 pounds in 1394 ({{Inflation|index=UK|value=20|start_year=1394|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}),<ref>Ward, p. 109.</ref> and Chaucer's name fades from the historical record not long after Richard's overthrow in 1399. The last few records of his life show his pension renewed by the new king and his taking a lease on a residence within the [[Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter|close of Westminster Abbey]] on 24&nbsp;December 1399.<ref>Morley (1890); Vol. V, pp. 247–248.</ref> Henry IV renewed the grants assigned by Richard, but ''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse'' hints that the grants might not have been paid. The last mention of Chaucer is on 5&nbsp;June 1400, when some debts owed to him were repaid.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Manly |first1=John Matthews |title=Chaucer Life-records |date=1966 |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=532}}</ref>

Chaucer died of unknown causes on 25&nbsp;October 1400, although the only evidence for this date comes from the engraving on his tomb, which was erected more than 100 years after his death. There is some speculation<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jones, Terry |author2= Yeager, Robert F. |author3= Doran, Terry |author4= Fletcher, Alan |author5= D'or, Juliett |year=2003 |title=Who Murdered Chaucer?: A Medieval Mystery |publisher= Methuen |isbn=0-413-75910-5 }}</ref> that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor Henry IV, but the case is entirely circumstantial. Chaucer was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, as was his right owing to his status as a tenant of the Abbey's close. In 1556, his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making him the first writer interred in the area now known as [[Poets' Corner]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Poets' Corner History|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/about-the-abbey/history/poets-corner |access-date=12 May 2020 |agency=WestminsterAbbey.org}}</ref>