Editing Genetically modified organism (section)

== Definition ==
The definition of a genetically modified organism (GMO) is not clear and varies widely between countries, international bodies, and other communities. At its broadest, the definition of a GMO can include anything that has had its genes altered, including by nature.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/gmoanswers/2016/10/04/nature-and-gmos/|title=Nature, The First Creator of GMOs| vauthors = Chilton MD |date=4 October 2016|website=Forbes|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/first-gmo-8000-years-old-180955199/|title=The First GMO Is 8,000 Years Old| vauthors = Blakemore E |website=Smithsonian|access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref> Taking a less broad view, it can encompass every organism that has had its genes altered by humans, which would include all crops and livestock. In 1993, the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' defined genetic engineering as "any of a wide range of techniques&nbsp;... among them [[artificial insemination]], [[In vitro fertilization|''in vitro'' fertilization]] (''e.g.'', 'test-tube' babies), [[sperm bank]]s, [[cloning]], and gene manipulation."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia07ency/page/178|title=The new encyclopaedia Britannica|date=1993|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|isbn=0-85229-571-5|edition=15th|location=Chicago|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia07ency/page/178 178]|oclc=27665641|url-access=registration}}</ref> The [[European Union]] (EU) included a similarly broad definition in early reviews, specifically mentioning GMOs being produced by "[[selective breeding]] and other means of artificial selection"<ref name=":23">Staff [http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/gmo/gmo.pdf Economic Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops on the Agri-Food Sector; p. 42 Glossary – Term and Definitions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514202621/http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/gmo/gmo.pdf|date=14 May 2013}} The European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture, "Genetic engineering: The manipulation of an organism's genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating specific genes through modern molecular biology techniques. A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection", Retrieved 5 November 2012</ref> These definitions were promptly adjusted with a number of exceptions added as the result of pressure from scientific and farming communities, as well as developments in science. The EU definition later excluded traditional breeding, in vitro fertilization, induction of [[polyploidy]], [[mutagenesis|mutation breeding]], and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process.<ref name="EU172">{{Cite journal|author=The European Parliament and the council of the European Union|date=12 March 2001|title=Directive on the release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Directive 2001/18/EC ANNEX I A|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32001L0018|journal=Official Journal of the European Communities}}</ref><ref name="Freedman-2018">{{cite book | vauthors = Freedman W | chapter=6 ~ Evolution | publisher=[[Dalhousie University]] | date=27 August 2018 | url=http://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/environmentalscience/chapter/chapter-6-evolution/ | title=Environmental Science – a Canadian perspective | edition=6}}</ref><ref name=":17" />

Another approach was the definition provided by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], the [[World Health Organization]], and the [[European Commission]], stating that the organisms must be altered in a way that does "not occur naturally by mating and/or natural [[Recombination (biology)|recombination]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y2772e/y2772e04.htm|title=Section 2: Description and Definitions |website=www.fao.org|access-date=3 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/|title=Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods|website=WHO|access-date=3 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/eu-legislation-gmos-overview|title=The EU Legislation on GMOs – An Overview |date=29 June 2010|website=EU Science Hub – European Commission|access-date=3 January 2019}}</ref>  Progress in science, such as the discovery of [[horizontal gene transfer]] being a relatively common natural phenomenon, further added to the confusion on what "occurs naturally", which led to further adjustments and exceptions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 October 2016|title=GMOs and Horizontal Gene Transfer|url=https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/gmos-and-horizontal-gene-transfer/|access-date=9 July 2021|website=NeuroLogica Blog}}</ref> There are examples of crops that fit this definition, but are not normally considered GMOs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang C, Wohlhueter R, Zhang H |title=Genetically modified foods: A critical review of their promise and problems |journal=Food Science and Human Wellness |date=September 2016 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=116–123 |doi=10.1016/j.fshw.2016.04.002 |doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, the grain crop [[triticale]] was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Oliver MJ|date=2014|title=Why we need GMO crops in agriculture|journal=Missouri Medicine|volume=111|issue=6|pages=492–507|pmc=6173531|pmid=25665234}}</ref>

Genetically engineered organism (GEO) can be considered a more precise term compared to GMO when describing organisms' genomes that have been directly manipulated with biotechnology.<ref>{{cite web|author=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition|title=Food from Genetically Engineered Plants – Consumer Info About Food from Genetically Engineered Plants|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/geplants/ucm461805.htm|access-date=8 January 2019|website=www.fda.gov}}</ref><ref name="Freedman-2018" />  The [[Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety]] used the synonym ''living modified organism'' (''LMO'') in 2000 and defined it as "any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology."<ref>Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Montreal: 2000. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity.</ref> Modern biotechnology is further defined as "In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including [[Recombinant DNA|recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bch.cbd.int/protocol/cpb_faq.shtml|title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on the Cartagena Protocol|date=29 February 2012|website=The Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH)|access-date=3 January 2019}}</ref>

Originally, the term GMO was not commonly used by scientists to describe genetically engineered organisms until after usage of GMO became common in popular media.<ref name="NCState">{{cite web|url=https://agbiotech.ces.ncsu.edu/q1-what-is-the-difference-between-genetically-modified-organisms-and-genetically-engineered-organisms-we-seem-to-use-the-terms-interchangeably/|title=What Is the Difference Between Genetically Modified Organisms and Genetically Engineered Organisms?|website=agbiotech.ces.ncsu.edu|access-date=8 January 2019}}</ref> The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) considers GMOs to be plants or animals with heritable changes introduced by genetic engineering or traditional methods, while GEO specifically refers to organisms with genes introduced, eliminated, or rearranged using molecular biology, particularly [[recombinant DNA]] techniques, such as [[transgenesis]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usda.gov/topics/biotechnology/biotechnology-glossary|title=Agricultural Biotechnology Glossary {{!}} USDA|website=www.usda.gov|access-date=8 January 2019}}</ref>

The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Colombo L | date=2007|title=The semantics of the term 'genetically modified organism' // Genetic impact of aquaculture activities on native populations.|journal=Genimpact Final Scientific Report (E U Contract N. RICA-CT -2005-022802)|pages=123–125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Chassy BM |date=2007|title=The History and Future of GMOs in Food and Agriculture |journal=Cereal Foods World|doi=10.1094/cfw-52-4-0169|issn=0146-6283}}</ref> This has led scientists to label it as a scientifically meaningless category,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-11-03/why-term-gmo-scientifically-meaningless|title=Why the term GMO is 'scientifically meaningless'|website=Public Radio International|date=3 November 2014 |access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref> saying that it is impossible to group all the different types of GMOs under one common definition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tagliabue G |title=The nonsensical GMO pseudo-category and a precautionary rabbit hole |journal=Nature Biotechnology |date=September 2015 |volume=33 |issue=9 |pages=907–908 |doi=10.1038/nbt.3333 |pmid=26348954 |s2cid=205281930 }}</ref> It has also caused issues for [[Organic food|organic]] institutions and groups looking to ban GMOs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/materialsky.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002084810/http://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/materialsky.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-02 |url-status=live|title=National Organic Standards Board Materials/GMO Subcommittee Second Discussion Document on Excluded Methods Terminology |date=22 August 2014|website=United States Department of Agriculture|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lostcoastoutpost.com/2014/oct/14/heres-why-you-should-vote-against-measure-p-even-i/|title=Here's Why You Should Vote Against Measure P, Even If You Hate GMOs|website=Lost Coast Outpost|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> It also poses problems as new processes are developed. The current definitions came in before [[genome editing]] became popular and there is some confusion as to whether they are GMOs. The EU has adjudged that they are<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/25/gene-editing-is-gm-europes-highest-court-rules|title=Gene-edited plants and animals are GM foods, EU court rules| vauthors = Neslen A |date=25 July 2018|work=The Guardian|access-date=5 January 2019|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> changing their GMO definition to include "organisms obtained by [[Mutagenesis (molecular biology technique)|mutagenesis]]", but has excluded those "obtained by means of certain mutagenesis techniques, namely those which have conventionally been used in a number of applications and have a long safety record" from regulation. This refers to traditional random mutagenesis (radiation/chemical [[mutation breeding]])<ref>{{cite web |last1=European Parliamentary Research Service |title=New plant-breeding techniques Applicability of EU GMO rules |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/642235/EPRS_BRI(2019)642235_EN.pdf |website=October 2019}}</ref>  and would not exclude "new techniques" (especially those that have emerged since the adoption of the GMO directive) like gene editing.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|url=https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2018-07/cp180111en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725204750/https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2018-07/cp180111en.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-25 |url-status=live|title=Organisms obtained by mutagenesis are GMOs and are, in principle, subject to the obligations laid down by the GMO Directive|website=curia.europa.eu|access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref> In contrast the USDA has ruled that gene edited organisms are not considered GMOs.<ref name=":19" />

Even greater inconsistency and confusion is associated with various "Non-GMO" or "GMO-free" labeling schemes in food marketing, where even products such as water or salt, which do not contain any organic substances and genetic material (and thus cannot be genetically modified by definition), are being labeled to create an impression of being "more healthy".<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 June 2018|title=Viewpoint: Non-GMO salt exploits Americans' scientific illiteracy|url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2018/06/01/viewpoint-non-gmo-salt-shows-americans-scientific-illiteracy/|access-date=9 July 2021|website=Genetic Literacy Project|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Knutson J | date = 28 May 2018 |title=A sad day for our society when salt is labeled non-GMO|url=https://www.agweek.com/opinion/columns/4451159-sad-day-our-society-when-salt-labeled-non-gmo|access-date=9 July 2021|website=Agweek|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=24 August 2015|title=Non GMO salt? Water? Food companies exploit GMO free labels, misleading customers, promoting misinformation|url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/08/24/non-gmo-salt-water-food-companies-exploit-gmo-free-labels-misleading-customers-promoting-misinformation/|access-date=9 July 2021|website=Genetic Literacy Project|language=en-US}}</ref>