Editing Gender studies (section)

==Influences==

===Psychoanalytic theory===

A number of theorists have influenced the field of gender studies significantly, specifically in terms of psychoanalytic theory.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Pollock | editor-first=Griselda | title=Psychoanalysis and the Image | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell | year=2006}}</ref> Among these are [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Jacques Lacan]], [[Julia Kristeva]], and [[Bracha L. Ettinger]]. Gender studied under the lens of each of these theorists looks somewhat different. In a Freudian system, women are "mutilated and must learn to accept their lack of a penis" (in Freud's terms a "deformity").<ref>{{citation | last = Horney | first = Karen | contribution = On the Genesis of the Castration Complex in Women (1922) | editor-last = Miller | editor-first = J. B. | title = Psychoanalysis and Women | location = New York | publisher = Bruner/Mazel | year = 1973 | postscript = .}}</ref> Lacan, however, organizes femininity and masculinity according to different unconscious structures. Both male and female subjects participate in the "phallic" organization, and the feminine side of sexuation is "supplementary" and not opposite or complementary.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lacan | first = Jacques | author-link = Jacques Lacan | title = Encore | publisher = Seuil | location = Paris | year = 1975}}</ref> Lacan uses the concept of sexuation (sexual situation), which posits the development of gender-roles and role-play in childhood, to counter the idea that gender identity is innate or biologically determined. According to Lacan, the sexuation of an individual has as much, if not more, to do with their development of a gender identity as being genetically sexed male or female.<ref name="Lacan & Post-feminism">{{cite book | last = Wright | first = E. | title = Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters) | year = 2003}}</ref>

Kristeva contends that patriarchal cultures, like individuals, have to exclude the maternal and the feminine so that they can come into being.<ref name="Kristeva Abject">{{cite book | last = Kristeva | first = Julia | author-link = Julia Kristeva | title = Powers of Horror | url = https://archive.org/details/powersofhorrores00kris | url-access = registration | year = 1982 | publisher = Columbia University Press | isbn = 9780231053464 }}</ref> [[Bracha L. Ettinger]] transformed<ref>{{cite book | first=Bracha L. | last=Ettinger | title=Régard et éspace-de-bord matrixiels | language=fr | location=Brussels | publisher=La Lettre Volée | year=1999 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=Bracha L. |last=Ettinger | title=Matrixial Subjectivity, Aesthetics, Ethics. Vol 1: 1990-2000. Selected papers | editor-first=Griselda | editor-last=Pollock | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | year=2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | editor-last=de Zegher | editor-first=Catherine M. | title=Inside the Visible | location=Cambridge and London | publisher=MIT Press | year=1996 }}</ref><ref>Bracha L. Ettinger, Proto-ética matricial. Spanish Edition translated and Introduced by Julian Gutierrez Albilla (Gedisa 2019)</ref><ref>[[Carol Armstrong]] and [[Catherine de Zegher]]. Women Artists at the Millennium. October Books/MIT Press, 2006 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Gutierrez-Albilla | first=Julian | title=Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of Pedro Almodovar | publisher=Edinburch University Press | year=2017 }}</ref><ref>[[Pollock, Griselda]]. Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum. Taylor and Francis, 2010 .</ref> subjectivity in contemporary psychoanalysis since the early 1990s with the Matrixial<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Ettinger | first = Bracha L. | author-link = Bracha L. Ettinger | title = Matrix and metramorphosis | journal = [[Differences (journal)|differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies]] | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 176–208 | date = 1992 }}</ref> feminine-maternal and prematernal Eros<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book | first = Bracha L. | last = Ettinger | author-link = Bracha L. Ettinger | chapter = Diotima and the Matrixial Transference: Psychoanalytical Encounter-Event as Pregnancy in Beauty | editor1-last = Van der Merwe | editor1-first = Chris N. | editor2-last = Viljoen | editor2-first = Hein | title = Across the Threshold | location = NY | publisher = Peter Lang | year = 2007}}</ref> of borderlinking (bordureliance), borderspacing (bordurespacement) and co-emergence. The matrixial feminine difference defines a particular gaze<ref>Bracha L. Ettinger, ''The Matrixial Borderspace''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006 (articles 1994–99). {{ISBN|0-8166-3587-0}}.</ref> and it is a source for trans-subjectivity and transjectivity<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ettinger | first = Bracha L. | author-link = Bracha L. Ettinger | title = Matrixial Trans-subjectivity | journal = Theory, Culture & Society | volume = 23 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 218–222 | doi=10.1177/026327640602300247 | date = May 2006 | s2cid = 144024795 }}</ref> in both males and females. Ettinger rethinks the human subject as informed by the archaic connectivity to the maternal and proposes the idea of a Demeter-Persephone Complexity.<ref>{{YouTube|mdkbYsjlMA8|Public lecture at EGS (2012)}}</ref>

====Feminist psychoanalytic theory====
Feminist theorists such as [[Juliet Mitchell]], [[Nancy Chodorow]], [[Jessica Benjamin]], [[Jane Gallop]], [[Bracha L. Ettinger]], [[Shoshana Felman]], [[Griselda Pollock]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Pollock | first = Griselda | author-link = Griselda Pollock | title = Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive | publisher = Routledge | date = 2007}}</ref> [[Luce Irigaray]] and [[Jane Flax]] have developed a Feminist psychoanalysis and argued that psychoanalytic theory is vital to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be criticized by women as well as transformed to free it from vestiges of sexism (i.e. being [[censored]]). [[Shulamith Firestone]], in ''The Dialectic of Sex'', calls [[Freudianism]] the misguided feminism and discusses how Freudianism is ''almost'' completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud writes "penis", the word should be replaced with "power".

Critics such as [[Elizabeth Grosz]] accuse [[Jacques Lacan]] of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis.<ref name ="Grosz">{{cite book | last = Grosz | first = Elizabeth | author-link = Elizabeth Grosz| title = Jacques Lacan: A Feminist Introduction | url = https://archive.org/details/jacqueslacanfemi0000gros | url-access = registration | location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 1990 }}</ref> Others, such as [[Judith Butler]], Bracha L. Ettinger and [[Jane Gallop]] have used Lacanian work, though in a critical way, to develop gender studies.<ref name="Gender Trouble">{{cite book | last = Butler | first = Judith | author-link = Judith Butler | title = Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity | title-link = Gender Trouble | year = 1999 }}</ref><ref name="Ettinger">{{citation | last = Ettinger | first = Bracha L. | author-link = Bracha L. Ettinger | contribution = The Matrixial Borderspace | editor-last = Ettinger | editor-first = Bracha L. | editor-link = Bracha L. Ettinger | title = Collected Essays from 1994–1999 | publisher = [[University of Minnesota Press]] | year = 2006 }}</ref><ref name="Gallop">{{cite book | last = Gallop | first = Jane | author-link = Jane Gallop | title = The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1993}}</ref> According to J. B. Marchand, "The gender studies and queer theory are rather reluctant, hostile to see the psychoanalytic approach."<ref>{{citation | last1 = Chaudoye | first1 = Guillemine | last2 = Cupa | first2 = Dominique | last3 = Parat | first3 = Hélène | contribution = Judith Butler | editor-last1 = Chaudoye | editor-first1 = Guillemine | editor-last2 = Cupa | editor-first2 = Dominique | editor-last3 = Parat | editor-first3 = Hélène | title = Le Sexuel, ses différences et ses genres | publisher = EDK Editions | location = Paris | year = 2011 }}</ref> For [[Jean-Claude Guillebaud]], gender studies (and activists of sexual minorities) "besieged" and consider psychoanalysis and psychoanalysts as "the new priests, the last defenders of the genital normality, morality, moralism or even obscurantism".<ref>{{cite book | author1-first=Jean-Claude | author1-last=Guillebaud | author1-link=Jean-Claude Guillebaud | author2-first=Armand | author2-last=Abécassis | author3-first=Alain | author3-last=Houziaux | title=La psychanalyse peut-elle guérir? | location=Paris | publisher=Éditions de l'Atelier | year=2005 | page=43}}</ref>

[[Judith Butler]]'s worries about the psychoanalytic outlook under which sexual difference is "undeniable" and pathologizing any effort to suggest that it is not so paramount and unambiguous ...".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Butler | first1 = Judith | last2 = Fassin | first2 = Éric | last3 = Wallach Scott | first3 = Joan | author-link1 = Judith Butler | author-link2 = Éric Fassin | author-link3 = Joan Wallach Scott | title = Pour ne pas en finir avec le 'genre'... table ronde | trans-title = For more on 'gender'... round table | journal = Sociétés & Représentations | volume = 2 | issue = 24 | pages = 285–306 | doi = 10.3917/sr.024.0285 | date = May 2006 }}</ref> According to Daniel Beaune and Caterina Rea, the gender-studies "often criticized psychoanalysis to perpetuate a family and social model of patriarchal, based on a rigid and timeless version of the parental order".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Beaune | first1 = Daniel | last2 = Rea | first2 = Caterina | title = Psychanalyse sans Œdipe: Antigone, genre et subversion | page = 78 | publisher = L'Harmattan | location = Paris | year = 2010 }}</ref>

===Literary theory===
Psychoanalytically oriented [[French feminism]] focused on visual and literary theory all along. [[Virginia Woolf]]'s legacy as well as "[[Adrienne Rich]]'s call for women's revisions of literary texts, and history as well, has galvanized a generation of feminist authors to reply with texts of their own".<ref>Mica Howe & Sarah A. Aguier (eds). ''He said, She Says''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001.</ref> [[Griselda Pollock]] and other feminists have articulated Myth and poetry<ref name="Vanda Zajko 2006">{{cite book | editor1-first=Vanda | editor1-last=Zajko | editor2-first=Miriam | editor2-last=Leonard | editor2-link=Miriam Leonard | title=Laughing with Medusa | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006}}</ref> and literature,<ref name="Vanda Zajko 2006"/><ref>{{cite book | author-first=Maggie | author-last=Humm | author-link=Maggie Humm | title=Modernist Women and Visual Cultures | publisher=Rutgers University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0-8135-3266-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=Nina | last=Cornyetz | title=Dangerous Women, Deadly Words | publisher=Stanford University Press | year=1999 }}</ref> from the point of view of gender.

===Post-modern influence===
The emergence of [[post-modernism]] theories affected gender studies,<ref name="Lacan & Post-feminism"/> causing a movement in [[Gender identity|identity theories]] away from the concept of fixed or [[essentialism|essentialist]] gender identity, to [[Postmodernity#Distinctions in philosophy and critical theory|post-modern]]<ref>{{cite book | first=Margret | last=Grebowicz | author-link=Margret Grebowicz | year=2007 | title=Gender After Lyotard | location=NY | publisher=SUNY Press}}</ref> fluid<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Zohar | editor-first=Ayelet | title=PostGender | publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing | year=2009 }}</ref> or multiple identities.<ref>[[Seyla Benhabib|Benhabib, S.]] (1995). "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange", and Butler, J. (1995), "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange".</ref> The impact of [[post-structuralism]], and its literary theory aspect post-modernism, on gender studies was most prominent in its challenge of grand narratives. Post-structuralism paved the way for the emergence of [[queer theory]] in gender studies, which necessitated the field expanding its purview to sexuality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://genderandsexuality.as.nyu.edu/page/home|title=Gender and Sexuality Studies – New York University|work=nyu.edu|access-date=26 July 2015}}</ref>

In addition to the expansion to include sexuality studies, under the influence of post-modernism gender studies has also turned its lens toward [[hegemonic masculinity|masculinity studies]], due to the work of sociologists and theorists such as [[R. W. Connell]], [[Michael Kimmel]], and E. Anthony Rotundo.<ref>{{Cite book|title=American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity From The Revolution to the Modern Era|author= E. Anthony Rotundo|isbn= 9780465001699|date= 1994-05-13|publisher= Basic Books}}</ref><ref>Reeser, ''Masculinities in Theory'', 2010.</ref> These changes and expansions have led to some contentions within the field, such as the one between second wave feminists and queer theorists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amygoodloe.com/papers/lesbian-feminism-and-queer-theory-another-battle-of-the-sexes/|first=Amy | last=Goodloe | author-link=Amy Goodloe | title=Lesbian-Feminism and Queer Theory: Another "Battle of the Sexes"?|work=amygoodloe.com|access-date=26 July 2015}}</ref> The line drawn between these two camps lies in the problem as feminists see it of queer theorists arguing that everything is fragmented and there are not only no grand narratives but also no trends or categories. Feminists argue that this erases the categories of gender altogether but does nothing to antagonize the power dynamics reified by gender. In other words, the fact that gender is [[social construction|socially constructed]] does not undo the fact that there are strata of oppression between genders.