Editing Geʽez (section)

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Geʽez vowels
|-
!&nbsp;!! [[Front vowel|Front]]&nbsp;!! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| /{{IPA link|i}}/ {{transliteration|sem|i}} || /{{IPA link|ɨ}}/ {{transliteration|sem|ə}} || /{{IPA link|u}}/ {{transliteration|sem|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| /{{IPA link|e}}/ {{transliteration|sem|e}} || || /{{IPA link|o}}/ {{transliteration|sem|o}}
|-
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
| colspan="2" | /{{IPA link|æ}} ~ {{IPA link|ɐ}}/{{efn|{{IPA|/æ/}} in the Amharic liturgical pronunciation,<ref>{{harvnb|Gragg|1997a|p=177}}: "/ä/ is low central front, higher and more forward than /a/, secondarily perhaps also shorter; approximates IPA {{IPA|[æ]}}."</ref> or {{IPA|/ɐ/}}<ref>{{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=3}}: "a [æ, ä]"</ref> (as in [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]).}} {{transliteration|sem|a}} ||
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || /{{IPA link|a}} ~ {{IPA link|ɑ}}/{{efn|According to Lambdin.<ref>{{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=3}}: "ā [a, ɑ]"</ref>}} {{transliteration|sem|ā}} ||
|}
{{notelist}}

Historically, {{IPA|/ɨ/}} has a basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short {{transliteration|sem|*i}} and {{transliteration|sem|*u}}, {{IPA|/æ ~ ɐ/}} with short {{transliteration|sem|*a}}, the vowels {{IPA|/i, u, a/}} with Proto-Semitic long {{transliteration|sem|*ī, *ū, *ā}} respectively, and {{IPA|/e, o/}} with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs {{transliteration|sem|*ay}} and {{transliteration|sem|*aw}}.{{sfn|Gragg|1997a|pp=177–178}}{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=246}} In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/aw/}}, less so between {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/aj/}}, e.g. {{lang|gez|ተሎኩ}} ''taloku'' ~ {{lang|gez|ተለውኩ}} ''talawku'' ("I followed").{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=2}}

In the transcription employed by the [[Encyclopaedia Aethiopica]], which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a.

=== Consonants ===

==== Transliteration ====

Ge{{ayin}}ez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values):
<div style="float:left">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!translit.
| {{transliteration|sem|h}} || {{transliteration|sem|l}} || {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}} || {{transliteration|sem|m}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ś}} || {{transliteration|sem|r}} || {{transliteration|sem|s}} || {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| {{transliteration|sem|b}} || {{transliteration|sem|t}} || {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} || {{transliteration|sem|n}}
| {{transliteration|sem|{{hamza}}}}
|- style="font-size:2em"
!style="font-size:0.5em"|Geʽez
| {{lang|gez|ሀ}} || {{lang|gez|ለ}} || {{lang|gez|ሐ}} || {{lang|gez|መ}}
| {{lang|gez|ሠ}} || {{lang|gez|ረ}} || {{lang|gez|ሰ}} || {{lang|gez|ቀ}}
| {{lang|gez|በ}} || {{lang|gez|ተ}} || {{lang|gez|ኀ}} || {{lang|gez|ነ}}
| {{lang|gez|አ}}
|}
</div>

<div style="float:left">

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!translit.
| {{transliteration|sem|k}} || {{transliteration|sem|w}} || {{transliteration|sem|{{ayin}}}}
| {{transliteration|sem|z}} || {{transliteration|sem|y}} || {{transliteration|sem|d}} || {{transliteration|sem|g}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}} || {{transliteration|sem|p̣}} || {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}} || {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|f}} || {{transliteration|sem|p}}
|- style="font-size:2em"
!style="font-size:0.5em"|Geʽez
| {{lang|gez|ከ}} || {{lang|gez|ወ}} || {{lang|gez|ዐ}}
| {{lang|gez|ዘ}} || {{lang|gez|የ}} || {{lang|gez|ደ}} || {{lang|gez|ገ}}
| {{lang|gez|ጠ}} || {{lang|gez|ጰ}} || {{lang|gez|ጸ}} || {{lang|gez|ፀ}}
| {{lang|gez|ፈ}} || {{lang|gez|ፐ}}
|}

</div>

{{clear}}

Because Ge{{ayin}}ez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to the graphemes {{transliteration|sem|ś}} (Ge{{ayin}}ez {{lang|gez|ሠ}}) and {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}} (Ge{{ayin}}ez {{lang|gez|ፀ}}) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Ge{{ayin}}ez."{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=244}}

[[File:Psalms.jpg|alt=a verse from Psalm written in Ge{{ayin}}ez|thumb|A verse from [[Psalms|the book of Psalms]] written in Ge{{ayin}}ez]]

A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}. Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}} in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain.{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=245}}

The chart below lists {{IPA|/ɬ/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ɬʼ/}} as possible values for {{transliteration|sem|ś}} ({{lang|gez|ሠ}}) and {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}} ({{lang|gez|ፀ}}) respectively. It also lists {{IPA|/χ/}} as a possible value for {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} ({{lang|gez|ኀ}}). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed [[Proto-Semitic]] consonants that they are descended from.

==== Phonemes of Geʽez ====

The following table presents the [[consonant]]s of the Ge{{ayin}}ez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a [[phoneme]] is given in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription, followed by its representation in the Ge{{ayin}}ez script and scholarly transliteration.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Geʽez consonants<ref>{{cite journal|last=Weninger|first=Stefan|date=2011|title=Sounds of Gǝ{{ayin}}ǝz – How to Study the Phonetics and Phonology of an Ancient Language|journal=Aethiopica|volume=13|pages=75–88|doi=10.15460/aethiopica.13.1.39|url=https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/aethiopica/article/view/39/20|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2| [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=3| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!rowspan=2| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!rowspan=2| [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
!rowspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| {{small|[[Central consonant|central]]}}
! {{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}}
! {{small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}}
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| /{{IPA link|m}}/ {{lang|gez|መ}} {{transliteration|sem|m}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|n}}/ {{lang|gez|ነ}} {{transliteration|sem|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Plosive|Stop]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
| /{{IPA link|p}}/ {{lang|gez|ፐ}} {{transliteration|sem|p}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|t}}/ {{lang|gez|ተ}} {{transliteration|sem|t}}
|
|
| /{{IPA link|k}}/ {{lang|gez|ከ}} {{transliteration|sem|k}}
| /{{IPA link|k}}[[Labialization|ʷ]]/ {{lang|gez|ኰ}} {{transliteration|sem|kʷ}}
|
|rowspan=3| /{{IPA link|ʔ}}/ {{lang|gez|አ}} {{transliteration|sem|{{hamza}}}}
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| /{{IPA link|b}}/ {{lang|gez|በ}} {{transliteration|sem|b}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|d}}/ {{lang|gez|ደ}} {{transliteration|sem|d}}
|
|
| /{{IPA link|g}}/ {{lang|gez|ገ}} {{transliteration|sem|g}}
| /{{IPA link|g}}[[Labialization|ʷ]]/ {{lang|gez|ጐ}} {{transliteration|sem|gʷ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]</small>{{efn|The [[emphatic consonant]]s of Ge{{ayin}}ez were likely realized as [[Ejective consonant|ejectives]], as in the modern Ethiopian Semitic languages.}}
| /{{IPA link|pʼ}}/ {{lang|gez|ጰ}} {{transliteration|sem|p̣}}
| /{{IPA link|t’}}/ {{lang|gez|ጠ}} {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| /{{IPA link|t͡sʼ}}/ {{lang|gez|ጸ}} {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
| /{{IPA link|t͡ɬʼ}}/ {{lang|gez|ፀ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}
|
| /{{IPA link|k’}}/ {{lang|gez|ቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| /[[Velar ejective stop|k]][[Labialization|ʷ]][[Velar ejective stop|’]]/ {{lang|gez|ቈ}} {{transliteration|sem|qʷ}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Fricative]]
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
| /{{IPA link|f}}/ {{lang|gez|ፈ}} {{transliteration|sem|f}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|s}}/ {{lang|gez|ሰ}} {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| /{{IPA link|ɬ}}/ {{lang|gez|ሠ}} {{transliteration|sem|ś}}
|
| /{{IPA link|x}}/ {{lang|gez|ኀ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}
| /{{IPA link|x}}[[Labialization|ʷ]]/ {{lang|gez|ኈ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḫʷ}}
| /{{IPA link|ħ}}/ {{lang|gez|ሐ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| /{{IPA link|h}}/ {{lang|gez|ሀ}} {{transliteration|sem|h}}
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|z}}/ {{lang|gez|ዘ}} {{transliteration|sem|z}}
|
|
|
|
| /{{IPA link|ʕ}}/ {{lang|gez|ዐ}} {{transliteration|sem|{{ayin}}}}
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Approximant]]
|
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|r}}/ {{lang|gez|ረ}} {{transliteration|sem|r}}
| /{{IPA link|l}}/ {{lang|gez|ለ}} {{transliteration|sem|l}}
| /{{IPA link|j}}/ {{lang|gez|የ}} {{transliteration|sem|y}}
|
| /{{IPA link|w}}/ {{lang|gez|ወ}} {{transliteration|sem|w}}
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Ge{{ayin}}ez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic ====

Ge{{ayin}}ez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and [[ejective consonant|ejective]] (or [[emphatic consonant|emphatic]]) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Ge{{ayin}}ez has been generalized to include emphatic {{transliteration|sem|p̣}} {{IPA|/pʼ/}}. Geʽez has phonologized [[labialized velar consonant|labiovelars]], descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Ge{{ayin}}ez ś {{lang|gez|ሠ}} Sawt (in Amharic, also called ''śe-nigūś'', i.e. the ''se'' letter used for spelling the word ''nigūś'' "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic [[voiceless lateral fricative]] {{IPA|[ɬ]}}. Like Arabic, Ge{{ayin}}ez merged Proto-Semitic [[Shin (letter)|š]] and [[Samekh|s]] in {{lang|gez|ሰ}} (also called ''se-isat'': the ''se'' letter used for spelling the word ''isāt'' "fire"). Apart from this, Ge{{ayin}}ez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and [[ghayn]].

=== Stress ===

There is no evidence within the script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account<ref>{{harvnb|Mittwoch|1926}}, as used by {{harvnb|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;3.5}}, and largely identical to {{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|pp=5, 29, 36, 40, 57, 97}}</ref> may be broadly summarized as follows:
* primary stress only falls on the ultima (the last syllable) or the penult (the second-to-last syllable)
* in finite verbs (including the imperative), stress falls on the penult: {{lang|gez|ቀተለት}} ''qatálat'' ("she killed"), {{lang|gez|ንግር}} ''nə́gər'' ("speak!", masculine singular), with the important exception of the 2nd-person feminine plural suffix {{lang|gez|ክን}} ''-kə́n''
* in nouns and adjectives (in citation form), and most adverbs, stress falls on the ultima: {{lang|gez|ንጉሥ}} ''nəgúś'' ("king"), {{lang|gez|ሀገር}} ''hagár'' ("city"), {{lang|gez|ግዕዝ}} ''Gə́ʽz'' ("Geʽez"), {{lang|gez|ጠቢብ}} ''ṭabíb'' ("wise"), {{lang|gez|ህየ}} ''həyyá'' ("there"); an exception among adverbs is {{lang|gez|ዝየ}} ''zə́ya'' ("here")
* the suffix ''-a'', marking the construct state or the accusative case (or both), is not stressed: {{lang|gez|ንጉሠ}} ''nəgúśa'', {{lang|gez|ሀገረ}} ''hagára'', {{lang|gez|ግዕዘ}} ''Gə́ʽza'', {{lang|gez|ጠቢበ}} ''ṭabíba''
* cardinal numbers are stressed on the ultima, even in the accusative, e.g. {{lang|gez|ሠለስቱ}} ''śalastú'' accusative {{lang|gez|ሠለስተ}} ''śalastá'' ("three")
* pronouns have rather unpredictable stress, so stress is learned for each form
* [[clitic|enclitic]] particles (such as {{lang|gez|ሰ}} ''-(ə)ssá'') are stressed
* various grammatical words (short prepositions, conjunctions) and short nouns in the construct state are unstressed
As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account<ref>{{harvnb|Dillmann|1899}}, as cited by {{harvnb|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;3.5.2 in footnotes 45–46}}</ref> says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. {{lang|gez|ንግር}} ''nəgə́r'', "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on the third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. {{lang|gez|በረከተ}} ''bárakata'').

Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as ''yənaggərā́'' ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix ''-(h)ā́'' "her") vs. ''yənaggə́rā'' ("they speak", feminine plural), both written {{lang|gez|ይነግራ}}.{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=246}}