Editing Galileo (satellite navigation) (section)

== History ==
[[File:Praha Holešovice EUSPA vstup 1.jpg|thumb|The headquarters of the [[European Union Agency for the Space Programme|EUSPA]], which operates the Galileo system, in [[Prague]]]]

=== Main objectives ===
In 1999, the different concepts of the three main contributors of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) (Germany, France and Italy)<ref>{{cite web|last=Modola|first=Pino|date=23 November 2007|title=Italy and Germany make step towards Galileo satellite navigation programme financing resolution|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/italy-and-germany-make-step-towards-galileo-satellit-219857/|website=flightglobal.com}}</ref> for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all three countries. The first stage of the Galileo programme was agreed upon officially on 26 May 2003 by the [[European Union]] and the ESA. The system is intended primarily for civilian use, unlike the more military-focused systems of the United States ([[Global Positioning System|GPS]]), Russia ([[GLONASS]]) and China ([[BeiDou]]) in that Galileo doesn't limit accuracy for non-military applications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Galileo? |url=https://www.esa.int/Applications/Satellite_navigation/Galileo/What_is_Galileo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240928085358/https://www.esa.int/Applications/Satellite_navigation/Galileo/What_is_Galileo |archive-date=2024-09-28 |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Un-Dithering—Releasing Reliable GPS to the Public – Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training |url=https://adst.org/2020/02/the-un-dithering-releasing-reliable-gps-to-the-public/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527023458/https://adst.org/2020/02/the-un-dithering-releasing-reliable-gps-to-the-public/ |archive-date=2024-05-27 |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=adst.org}}</ref> The European system could be subject to shutdown for military purposes in extreme circumstances (such as an armed conflict).<ref name="dublin.usembassy.gov">{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Christine  |date=June 2004 |title=U.S., EU to Sign Landmark GPS-Galileo Agreement |url=http://dublin.usembassy.gov/ireland/gps_galileo.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121074828/http://dublin.usembassy.gov/ireland/gps_galileo.html |archive-date=21 January 2012 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> Italy and Germany led the development of the first generation of the Galileo programme,<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 April 2003|title=Italy and Germany reach agreement on Galileo contributions|url=https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/20005-italy-and-germany-reach-agreement-on-galileo-contributions|website=cordis.europa.eu}}</ref> while France is playing a more prominent role in the development of the Galileo Second Generation (G2G).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.challenges.fr/entreprise/aeronautique/satellites-galileo-thales-se-taille-la-part-du-lion_862321|title = Satellites Galileo : Thales se taille la part du lion|date = 20 July 2023}}</ref><ref name=sattoday-ecawardsg2contractthales>{{cite web |url=https://www.satellitetoday.com/government-military/2021/01/20/thales-alenia-space-airbus-win-second-generation-galileo-satellite-contract/ |title=Thales Alenia Space, Airbus Win Second-Generation Galileo Satellite Contract |last=Hill|first=Jeffrey |date=20 January 2021 |publisher=Satellite Today |language=en |access-date=2021-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126003337/https://www.satellitetoday.com/government-military/2021/01/20/thales-alenia-space-airbus-win-second-generation-galileo-satellite-contract/ |archive-date=2021-01-26 }}</ref><ref name="FOC gen 2-4">{{cite web|url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-will-play-major-role-board-galileo-2nd-generation|title=Thales Alenia Space will play a major role on-board Galileo 2nd Generation and will boost performances and cybersecurity for the constellation|publisher=Thaes Alenia Space|date=3 March 2021|access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref>

=== Funding ===
The [[European Commission]] had some difficulty funding the project's next stage, after several allegedly "per annum" sales projection graphs for the project were exposed in November 2001 as "cumulative" projections, which for each year projected included all previous years of sales. The attention that was brought to this multi-billion euro growing error in sales forecasts resulted in a general awareness in the commission and elsewhere that it was unlikely that the programme would yield the [[return on investment]] that had previously been suggested to investors and decision-makers.<ref>Van Der Jagt, Culver "Galileo: The Declaration of European Independence" a presentation at the Royal Institute of Navigation 7 November 2001</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2012}} On 17 January 2002, a spokesman for the project stated that, as a result of US pressure and economic difficulties, "Galileo is almost dead".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sample |first=Ian |date=8 December 2003 |title=Europe and US clash on satellite system |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2003/dec/08/world.internationaleducationnews |access-date=29 October 2011 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>

A few months later, however, the situation changed dramatically. European Union member states decided it was important to have a satellite-based positioning and timing infrastructure that the US could not easily turn off in times of political conflict.<ref name="Johnson 2007">{{cite book|first=Chalmers|last=Johnson|title=Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic|date=2008|publisher=Holt|page=235|isbn=978-0-8050-8728-4}}</ref>

The European Union and the European Space Agency agreed in March 2002 to fund the project, pending a review in 2003 (which was completed on 26 May 2003). The starting cost for the period ending in 2005 is estimated at €1.1 billion. The required satellites (the planned number is 30) were to be launched between 2011 and 2014, with the system up and running and under civilian control from 2019. The final cost is estimated at €3 billion, including the infrastructure on [[Earth]], constructed in 2006 and 2007. The plan was for private companies and investors to invest at least two-thirds of the cost of implementation, with the EU and ESA dividing the remaining cost. The base ''Open Service'' is to be available without charge to anyone with a Galileo-compatible [[Receiver (radio)|receiver]], with an encrypted higher-bandwidth improved-precision ''Commercial Service'' originally planned to be available at a cost, but in February 2018 the high accuracy service (HAS) (providing [[Precise Point Positioning]] data on the E6 frequency) was agreed to be made freely available, with the authentication service remaining commercial.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Fernandez-Hernandez |first1=I.|last2=Vecchione |first2=G. |last3=Díaz-Pulido |first3=F. |last4=Jeannot |first4=M. |last5=Valentaite |first5=G. |last6=Blasi |first6=R. |last7=Reyes |first7=J. |last8=Simón |first8=J. |date=October 2018 |title=Galileo High Accuracy: A Programme and Policy Perspective |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328139107 |conference=69th International Astronautical Congress |location=Bremen, Germany |via=[[ResearchGate]] }}</ref> By early 2011 costs for the project had run 50% over initial estimates.<ref name="costoverruns"/>

=== Tension with the United States ===
[[File:Galileo - Wolfowitz - Letter.png|thumb|A December 2001 letter from [[United States Deputy Secretary of Defense|US Deputy Secretary of Defense]] [[Paul Wolfowitz]] to the [[Minister (government)|Ministers]] of the [[Member State of the European Union|EU states]], pointing out possible compatibility issues]]

Galileo is intended to be an EU civilian GNSS that allows all users access to it. Initially [[GPS]] reserved the highest quality signal for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded ([[Selective Availability]]). This changed with President [[Bill Clinton]] signing a policy directive in 1996 to turn off Selective Availability. Since May 2000 the same precision signal has been provided to both civilians and the military.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{cite web|url=http://ngs.woc.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Event_QAs.pdf|title=GPS and Selective Availability Q&A|publisher=NOAA |access-date=28 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050921115614/http://ngs.woc.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Event_QAs.pdf|archive-date=21 September 2005}} }}</ref>

Since Galileo was designed to provide the highest possible precision (greater than GPS) to anyone, the US was concerned that an enemy could use Galileo signals in military strikes against the US and its allies (some weapons like missiles use GNSSs for guidance). The frequency initially chosen for Galileo would have made it impossible for the US to block the Galileo signals without also interfering with its own GPS signals.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} The US did not want to lose their GNSS capability with GPS while denying enemies the use of GNSS. Some US officials became especially concerned when Chinese interest in Galileo was reported.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BPW/is_12_13/ai_n27579865|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090628141723/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BPW/is_12_13/ai_n27579865|url-status=dead |archive-date=28 June 2009|title=EU, U.S. split over Galileo M-code overlay|date=December 2002|publisher=GPS World. FindArticles.com|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref>

An anonymous EU official claimed that the US officials implied that they might consider shooting down Galileo satellites in the event of a major conflict in which Galileo was used in attacks against American forces.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/milspace-04zc.html|title=US Could Shoot Down EU Satellites if Used by Foes in Wartime|date=24 October 2004|publisher=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] |access-date=9 September 2008}}</ref>{{not in source|date=September 2024}}The EU's stance is that Galileo is a neutral technology, available to all countries and everyone. At first, EU officials did not want to change their original plans for Galileo, but they have since reached the compromise that Galileo is to use different frequencies. This allows the blocking or jamming of either GNSS without affecting the other.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Bastian|last=Giegerich|contribution=Satellite States – Transatlantic Conflict and the Galileo System|contribution-url=http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/7/2/1/4/pages72145/p72145-1.php|title=Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Hilton Hawaiian Village, Honolulu, Hawaii, Mar 05, 2005|date=2005|publisher=Unpublished Manuscript}}{{Dead link|date=February 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==== GPS and Galileo ====
{{Comparison satellite navigation orbits}}

One of the reasons given for developing Galileo as an independent system was that position information from GPS can be made significantly inaccurate by the deliberate application of universal [[Error analysis for the Global Positioning System|selective availability]] (SA) by the US military. GPS is widely used worldwide for civilian applications; Galileo's proponents argued that civil infrastructure, including aircraft navigation and landing, should not rely solely upon a system with this vulnerability.

On 2 May 2000, the selective availability was disabled by the President of the United States, [[Bill Clinton]]; in late 2001 the entity managing the GPS confirmed that it did not intend to enable selective availability ever again.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite web |date=13 November 2014 |title=Satellite Navigation - GPS - Policy - Selective Availability |url=https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/gps/policy/availability/index.cfm |website=faa.gov}}}}</ref> Though Selective Availability capability still exists, on 19 September 2007 the US Department of Defense announced that newer GPS satellites would not be capable of implementing Selective Availability;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=11335|title=DoD Permanently Discontinues Procurement of Global Positioning System Selective Availability |publisher=DefenseLink|date=18 September 2007|access-date=17 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218050849/http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=11335 |archive-date=18 February 2008}}</ref> the wave of [[GPS Block IIF|Block IIF]] satellites launched in 2009, and all subsequent GPS satellites, are stated not to support selective availability. As old satellites are replaced in the [[GPS Block III]] programme, selective availability will cease to be an option.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{cite web|url=https://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/modernization/sa/|title=GPS.gov: Selective Availability |website=www.gps.gov|access-date=4 February 2018}} }}</ref> The modernisation programme also contains standardised features that allow GPS III and Galileo systems to inter-operate, allowing receivers to be developed to utilise GPS and Galileo together to create an even more accurate GNSS.

=== Cooperation with the United States ===
In June 2004, in a signed agreement with the United States, the European Union agreed to switch to a [[binary offset carrier modulation]] 1.1, or BOC(1,1), allowing the coexistence of both GPS and Galileo, and the future combined use of both systems. The European Union also agreed to address the "mutual concerns related to the protection of allied and US national security capabilities".<ref name="dublin.usembassy.gov" />

=== First experimental satellites: GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B ===
The first experimental satellite, [[GIOVE|GIOVE-A]], was launched in December 2005 and was followed by a second test satellite, [[GIOVE|GIOVE-B]], launched in April 2008. After successful completion of the In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase, additional satellites were launched. On 30 November 2007, the 27 EU transport ministers involved reached an agreement that Galileo should be operational by 2013,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7120041.stm|title='Unanimous backing' for Galileo|publisher=BBC|date=30 November 2007|access-date=19 April 2010}}</ref> but later press releases suggest it was delayed to 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/10/7&language=en|title=Commission awards major contracts to make Galileo operational early 2014|date=7 January 2010 |access-date=19 April 2010}}</ref>

=== Continued funding and governance issues ===
In mid-2006, the [[Public–private partnership|public-private partnership]] fell apart, and the European Commission decided to [[Nationalization|nationalise]] the Galileo programme.<ref name="insidegnss.com">{{Cite web |last=Gibbons |first=Glen |date=26 March 2009 |title=European Court of Auditors Lambastes Galileo Satellite Navigation Program |url=http://www.insidegnss.com/node/1426 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112230642/http://www.insidegnss.com/node/1426 |archive-date=12 January 2014 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref>

In early 2007, the EU had yet to decide how to pay for the system and the project was said to be "in deep crisis" due to lack of more public funds.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 May 2007 |title=EU: Galileo project in deep 'crisis' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/05/08/galileo.troubles.ap/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070511011357/https://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/05/08/galileo.troubles.ap/index.html |archive-date=11 May 2007 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> German Transport Minister [[Wolfgang Tiefensee]] was particularly doubtful about the consortium's ability to end the infighting at a time when only one testbed satellite had been successfully launched.

Although a decision was yet to be reached, on 13 July 2007<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/|title=MSN &#124; Outlook, Office, Skype, Bing, Breaking News, and Latest Videos|website=www.msn.com}}</ref> EU countries discussed cutting €548 million (US$755 million, £370 million) from the union's competitiveness budget for the following year and shifting some of these funds to other parts of the financing pot, a move that could meet part of the cost of the union's Galileo satellite navigation system. European Union research and development projects could be scrapped to overcome a funding shortfall.

In November 2007, it was agreed to reallocate funds from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 November 2007 |title=EU agrees 2008 budget to include Galileo financing |url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1195858921.15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225004015/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1195858921.15 |archive-date=25 December 2007 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> and to soften the tendering process in order to invite more EU companies.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7109971.stm|work=BBC News|title=Galileo 'compromise' is emerging|date=23 November 2007|access-date=3 May 2010}}</ref>

In April 2008, the EU transport ministers approved the Galileo Implementation Regulation. This allowed the €3.4 billion to be released from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7335833.stm|work=BBC News|title=Galileo legal process ticks over|date=7 April 2008|access-date=3 May 2010}}</ref> to allow the issuing of contracts to start construction of the ground station and the satellites.

In June 2009, the [[European Court of Auditors]] published a report, pointing out governance issues, substantial delays and budget overruns that led to project stalling in 2007, leading to further delays and failures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.europa.eu/portal/pls/portal/docs/1/2760294.PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091128132057/http://eca.europa.eu/portal/pls/portal/docs/1/2760294.PDF|url-status=dead|title=European Court of Auditors – Special Report on the management of the Galileo programme's development and validation phase|archive-date=28 November 2009}}</ref>

In October 2009, the [[European Commission]] cut the number of satellites definitively planned from 28 to 22, with plans to order the remaining six at a later time. It also announced that the first OS, PRS and SoL signal would be available in 2013, and the CS and SOL some time later. The €3.4 billion budget for the 2006–2013 period was considered insufficient.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2009 |title=EC Cuts Initial Galileo Order |url=https://aviationweek.com/ec-cuts-initial-galileo-order |access-date=14 July 2021 |website=Aviation Week Network}}</ref> In 2010, the think-tank Open Europe estimated the total cost of Galileo from start to 20 years after completion at €22.2 billion, borne entirely by taxpayers. Under the original estimates made in 2000, this cost would have been €7.7 billion, with €2.6 billion borne by taxpayers and the rest by private investors.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.openeurope.org.uk/media-centre/pressrelease.aspx?pressreleaseid=142|title=The EU's Galileo satellite project could cost UK taxpayers £2.6 billion more than originally planned|date=17 October 2010|publisher=openeurope.org.uk |access-date=24 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719162515/http://www.openeurope.org.uk/media-centre/pressrelease.aspx?pressreleaseid=142|archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref>

In November 2009, a ground station for Galileo was inaugurated near [[Kourou]] ([[French Guiana]]).<ref>{{cite web|last=|date=20 November 2009|title=Inauguration of site of Galileo station at Kourou|url=http://www.esa.int/esaNA/SEMYN6TP82G_galileo_0.html|website=European Space Agency (esa.int)}}</ref> The launch of the first four in-orbit validation (IOV) satellites was planned for the second half of 2011, and the launch of full operational capability (FOC) satellites was planned to start in late 2012.

In March 2010, it was verified that the budget for Galileo would only be available to provide the 4 IOV and 14 FOC satellites by 2014, with no funds then committed to bring the constellation above this 60% capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2010 |title=Initial Galileo Validation Satellites Delayed |url=https://spacenews.com/initial-galileo-validation-satellites-delayed/ |access-date=29 October 2011 |website=SpaceNews}}</ref> Paul Verhoef, the satellite navigation program manager at the European Commission, indicated that this limited funding would have serious consequences commenting at one point "To give you an idea, that would mean that for three weeks in the year you will not have satellite navigation" in reference to the proposed 18-vehicle constellation.

In July 2010, the European Commission estimated further delays and additional costs of the project to grow up to €1.5–1.7 billion, and moved the estimated date of completion to 2018. After completion the system will need to be subsidised by governments at €750 million per year.<ref name="sp">{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,721761,00.html|title=EU Expects Galileo Project Costs to Explode|publisher=Spiegel|date=2011}}</ref> An additional €1.9 billion was planned to be spent bringing the system up to the full complement of 30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares).<ref name="costoverruns">{{cite news|last=Taverna|first=Michael A.|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/awst/2011/01/24/AW_01_24_2011_p39-284139.xml|newspaper=Aviation Weekly|title=Completing Galileo To Cost $2.5 Billion|date=1 February 2011}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM4JMSRJHG_index_1.html#subhead5|title=Galileo's navigation control hub opens in Fucino|publisher=[[European Space Agency|ESA]]|date=20 December 2010|access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref>

In December 2010, EU ministers in Brussels voted [[Prague]], in the [[Czech Republic]], as the headquarters of the Galileo project.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Keating |first=Dave |date=13 December 2010 |title=Prague To Host EU Satellite Navigation Agency |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/prague_galileo_agency/2245066.html |access-date=14 July 2021 |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty}}</ref>

In January 2011, infrastructure costs up to 2020 were estimated at €5.3 billion. In that same month, [[United States diplomatic cables leak|Wikileaks revealed]] that Berry Smutny, the CEO of the German satellite company [[OHB SE|OHB-System]], said that Galileo "is a stupid idea that primarily serves French interests".<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2009 |title=OHB-SYSTEM CEO CALLS GALILEO A WASTE OF GERMAN TAX PAYER MONEY |url=http://www.aftenposten.no/spesial/wikileaksdokumenter/article3985655.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114200247/http://www.aftenposten.no/spesial/wikileaksdokumenter/article3985655.ece |archive-date=14 January 2011 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> The BBC learned in 2011 that €500 million (£440 million) would become available to make the extra purchase, taking Galileo within a few years from 18 operational satellites to 24.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13871198|work=BBC News|title=Europe's Galileo sat-nav in big cash boost|date=22 June 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Galileo launch on Soyuz, 21 Oct 2011 (6266227357).jpg|thumb|upright|right|Galileo launch on a [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] rocket on 21 October 2011.]]

The first two Galileo In-Orbit Validation satellites were launched by [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz ST-B]] flown from [[Guiana Space Centre|Centre Spatial Guyanais]] on 21 October 2011,<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 October 2011 |title=Arianespace scores a double success with its historic first Soyuz launch from the Spaceport |url=http://www.arianespace.com/news-mission-update/2011/vs01-success.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022201104/http://www.arianespace.com/news-mission-update/2011/vs01-success.asp |archive-date=22 October 2011 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> and the remaining two on 12 October 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 October 2012 |title=Keeping up the Arianespace launcher family pace: Soyuz orbits two Galileo satellites |url=http://www.arianespace.com/news-mission-update/2012/964.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016050810/http://www.arianespace.com/news-mission-update/2012/964.asp |archive-date=16 October 2012 |website=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> As of 2017, the satellites are fully useful for precise positioning and geodesy with a limited usability in navigation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sośnica|first1=Krzysztof|last2=Prange|first2=Lars|last3=Kaźmierski|first3=Kamil|last4=Bury |first4=Grzegorz|last5=Drożdżewski|first5=Mateusz|last6=Zajdel|first6=Radosław|last7=Hadas|first7=Tomasz|title=Validation of Galileo orbits using SLR with a focus on satellites launched into incorrect orbital planes|journal=Journal of Geodesy|date=24 July 2017|volume=92|issue=2|pages=131–148|doi=10.1007/s00190-017-1050-x|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018JGeod..92..131S }}</ref>

Twenty-two further satellites with Full Operational Capability (FOC) were on order {{As of|2018|1|1|lc=y}}. The first four pairs of satellites were launched on 22 August 2014, 27 March 2015, 11 September 2015 and 17 December 2015.<ref>{{cite web|last=|title=What is Galileo?|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Navigation/Galileo/What_is_Galileo|website=European Space Agency (esa.int)}}</ref>