Editing Gaius Cassius Longinus (section)

==Biography==
===Early life===
[[File:Gaius Cassius Longinus and Lentulus Spinther. 42 BC. AR Denarius.jpg|thumb|300px|right| [[Denarius]] (42 BC) issued by '''Cassius Longinus''' and [[Lentulus Spinther]], depicting the crowned head of [[Libertas|Liberty]] and on the reverse a sacrificial jug and ''[[lituus]]''. From the military mint in [[Smyrna]]]]
Gaius Cassius Longinus came from a very old Roman family, [[Cassia gens|gens Cassia]], which had been prominent in Rome since the 6th century BC. Little is known of his early life, apart from a story that he showed his dislike of despots while still at school, by quarreling with the son of the dictator [[Sulla]].<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Brutus'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#9 9.1-4]</ref> He studied philosophy at [[Rhodes]] under Archelaus of Rhodes and became fluent in [[Greek language|Greek]].<ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/4*.html#67 4.67].</ref> He was married to [[Junia Tertia]], who was the daughter of [[Servilia (mother of Brutus)|Servilia]] and thus a half-sister of his co-conspirator [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]]. They had one son, who was born in about 60 BC.<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Brutus'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#14 14.4]</ref>

===Carrhae and Syria===
In 54 BC, Cassius joined [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] in his eastern campaign against the [[Parthian Empire]] as quaestor.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html#18 Plutarch], ''Crassus,'' 18 </ref> In 53 BC, Crassus led the Roman army at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in Northern-[[Mesopotamia]], considered the worst defeat since the disastrous loss at Cannae in 216 BC against Hannibal.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Battle of Carrhae |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/trivia/carrhae.html |url-status=live |access-date=March 10, 2025}}</ref> Cassius led the remaining troops' retreat back into Syria, and organised an effective defence force for the province.<ref>Dio, ''Roman History,'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#28 40.28]</ref> Plutarch’s account suggests Crassus could have avoided crushing defeat in Carrhae by listening to Cassius advice not to invade Parthia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morrell |first1=Kit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgBLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |title=Pompey, Cato, and the Governance of the Roman Empire |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198755142 |page=184 |language=en}}</ref> According to Dio, the Roman soldiers, as well as Crassus himself, were willing to give the overall command to Cassius after the initial disaster in the battle, which Cassius refused.<ref>Dio, ''Roman History,'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#28 40.28]</ref> The Parthians also considered Cassius as equal to Crassus in authority, and superior to him in skill.

In 51 BC, Cassius was able to ambush and defeat an invading Parthian army under the command of prince [[Pacorus I|Pacorus]] and general Osaces.<ref>Dio, ''Roman History,'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#28 40.28]</ref> He first refused to do battle with the Parthians, keeping his army behind the walls of [[Antioch]] (Syria's most important city) where he was besieged. When the Parthians gave up the siege and started to ravage the countryside, he followed them with his army harassing them as they went. The decisive encounter came on October 7 as the Parthians turned away from Antigonea. As they set about their return journey they were confronted by a detachment of Cassius' army, which faked a retreat and lured the Parthians into an ambush. The Parthians were suddenly surrounded by Cassius' main forces and defeated. Their general Osaces died from his wounds, and the rest of the Parthian army retreated back across the [[Euphrates]].<ref>Dio, ''Roman History,'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#29 40.29]</ref><ref>Gareth C. Sampson, ''The defeat of Rome, Crassus' Carrhae & the invasion of the East'', p.159</ref>

===Civil war===
[[File:Gaius Cassius Longinus.jpg|thumb|Cassius depicted in ''[[The Death of Julius Caesar (Camuccini)|The Death of Julius Caesar]]'' (1806) by [[Vincenzo Camuccini]]]]
Cassius returned to Rome in 50 BC, when [[Caesar's civil war|civil war]] was about to break out between [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Pompey]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Brutus,'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#7 7]</ref> Cassius was elected [[tribune of the plebs]] for 49&nbsp;BC, and threw in his lot with the [[Optimates]], although his brother [[Lucius Cassius Longinus (proconsul)|Lucius Cassius]] supported Caesar.<ref>Appian, ''Civil Wars.,'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html#33 2.33]</ref> Cassius left Italy shortly after Caesar crossed the [[Rubicon]]. He met Pompey in [[Greece]], and was appointed to command part of his fleet.

In 48 BC, Cassius sailed his ships to [[Sicily]], where he attacked and burned a large part of Caesar's navy.<ref>[[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], ''Civil War'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0076%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D101 iii.101].</ref> He then proceeded to harass ships off the [[Italy|Italian]] coast. News of Pompey's defeat at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] caused Cassius to head for the [[Hellespont]], with hopes of allying with the king of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]], [[Pharnaces II of Pontus|Pharnaces&nbsp;II]]. Cassius was overtaken by Caesar en route, and was forced to surrender unconditionally.<ref>However, both [[Suetonius]] (''Caesar'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#63 63] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120530163202/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#63 |date=2012-05-30 }}) and [[Cassius Dio]] (''Roman History'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/42*.html#6 42.6]) say that it was Lucius Cassius who surrendered to Caesar at the Hellespont.</ref>

Caesar made Cassius a [[legatus|legate]], employing him in the [[Alexandrian War]] against the very same Pharnaces whom Cassius had hoped to join after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus. However, Cassius refused to join in the fight against [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] and [[Metellus Scipio|Scipio]] in [[Africa]], choosing instead to retire to Rome.

Cassius spent the next two years in office, and apparently tightened his friendship with [[Cicero]].<ref>In a letter written in 45 BC, Cassius says to Cicero, "There is nothing that gives me more pleasure to do than to write to you; for I seem to be talking and joking with you face to face" ([http://www.attalus.org/translate/cassius.html#15.19 ''Ad Fam.'', xv.19]).</ref> In 44 BC, he became ''[[praetor peregrinus]]'' with the promise of the [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]n province for the ensuing year. The appointment of his junior and brother-in-law, [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Marcus Brutus]], as ''[[praetor]] urbanus'' deeply offended him.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot against Caesar, winning over the chief assassins to the cause of [[tyrannicide]], Brutus became their leader.<ref>[[T.R.S. Broughton]], ''The Magistrates of the Roman Republic'' (American Philological Association, 1952), vol. 2, p. 320, citing Plutarch, ''Brutus'' 7.1–3 and ''Caesar'' 62.2; and Appian, ''Bellum Civile'' 4.57.</ref> On the [[Ides of March]], 44 BC, Cassius urged on his fellow liberators and struck Caesar in the chest. Though they succeeded in [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|assassinating Caesar]], the celebration was short-lived, as [[Mark Antony]] seized power and turned the public against them. In letters written during 44 BC, Cicero frequently complains that Rome was still subjected to tyranny, because the "Liberators" had failed to kill Antony.<ref>For instance, [[Cicero]], ''Ad Fam.'', [http://www.attalus.org/translate/cassius.html#12.3 xii.3.1].</ref> According to some accounts, Cassius had wanted to kill Antony at the same time as Caesar, but Brutus dissuaded him.<ref>[[Velleius Paterculus]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#58 2.58.5]; [[Plutarch]], ''Brutus'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#18 18.2-6].</ref>
[[File:Roman coins obverse replicas.png|thumb|180px|A set of seven replica coins from the [[Roman Empire]], including a ''[[denarius]]'' of Gaius Cassius Longinus (A), which was minted on campaign in Europe in 43 or 42 BC]]

===Post-assassination===
Cassius' reputation in the East made it easy to amass an army from other governors in the area, and by 43 BC, he was ready to take on [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]] with 12 [[Roman legion|legions]]. By this point, the Senate had split with Antonius, and cast its lot with Cassius, confirming him as governor of the province. Dolabella attacked but was betrayed by his allies, leading him to commit [[suicide]]. Cassius was now secure enough to march on [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], but on the formation of the [[Second Triumvirate]], Brutus requested his assistance. Cassius quickly joined Brutus in [[Smyrna]] with most of his army, leaving his nephew behind to govern Syria as well.

The conspirators decided to attack the triumvirate's allies in [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]]. Cassius set upon and sacked [[Rhodes]] in 43 BC, while Brutus did the same to [[Lycia]]. They regrouped the following year in [[Sardis]], where their armies proclaimed them [[imperator]]. They crossed the [[Hellespont]], marched through [[Thrace]], and encamped near [[Philippi]] in [[Macedon]]. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian (later known as [[Augustus]]) and Mark Antony soon arrived, and Cassius planned to starve them out through the use of their superior position in the country. However, they were forced into a pair of battles by Antony, collectively known as the [[Battle of Philippi]]. Brutus was successful against Octavian, and took his camp. Cassius, however, was defeated and overrun by Mark Antony and, unaware of Brutus' victory, ordered his freeman Pindarus to help him kill himself. Pindarus fled afterwards and Cassius' head was found severed from his body.<ref>Plutarch, Life of Brutus, 43.5-6.</ref> He was mourned by Brutus as "the Last of the Romans" and buried in [[Thassos]].<ref name="44.2">[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Brutus'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#44 44.2].</ref>