Editing Frederick II of Denmark (section)

== Early years and education ==
{{Further|Count's Feud}}Frederick was born on 1 July 1534 at [[Haderslevhus Castle]], the son of Duke Christian of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] and [[Holstein]] (later King [[Christian III of Denmark]] and Norway) and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg]], the daughter of [[Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McNaughton, Arnold |title=The book of kings: a royal genealogy|date=1973|publisher=Garnstone Press|isbn=0-900391-19-7|location=London|page=156|oclc=2155441}}</ref> His mother was the sister of [[Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg|Catherine]], the first wife of the [[Sweden|Swedish]] king [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav Vasa]], and the mother of [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]], his future rival.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Koebenhavn1536.gif|left|thumb|323x323px|[[The Siege of Copenhagen 1535-1536]] during the [[Count's Feud]], a period of Danish instability that would shape Frederick's childhood.]]
At the time of Frederick's birth, [[Count's Feud|a civil war]] of Denmark was coming to an end (just three days after Frederick's birth his father [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian]] became King of Denmark). The previous king, [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]], died on 10 April the year before, but the Danish [[Rigsraadet|Council of the Realm]], which traditionally ruled the kingdom with the king''',''' had not chosen a successor, and now Denmark had, for more than a year, functioned as an [[Nobility|Aristocratic]] Republic.<ref name=":2" /> The father of the newborn Frederik, Christian, although eldest son of the late king, was not automatically King of Denmark, as the kingship in Denmark was not [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]], but [[Elective monarchy|elective]]. Noblemen of the [[Rigsraadet|Council of the Realm]] could choose to pick another member of the royal family as king if they so decided.

[[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] and his son Christian were staunch [[Protestants]] and adherents to the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran cause]], however, in the [[Rigsraadet|Council of the Realm]], which consisted of many [[Bishops in the Catholic Church|Catholic bishops]] as well as a number of powerful noblemen from the old nobility, there were a majority to support the established [[Catholic Church]]. After a period of [[interregnum]] and after subsequent risings in favour of the former [[Christian II of Denmark|King Christian II]], a period known as [[Count's Feud|the Count's Feud]], [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] finally became victorious, and was proclaimed King of a new Protestant Denmark.<ref>''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 3-page 2''</ref>

=== Proclaimed heir apparent ===
After [[Christian III of Denmark|King Christian III's]] victory in the [[Count's Feud]], royal power had now returned to Denmark, and in such a way that the king could set his own terms.<ref name=":3">Lockhart, Paul D., page 28</ref> In his ''[[haandfæstning]]'', a document which all former Danish Kings must sign, and which regulates the relationship between king and [[Danish nobility|nobility]], he reduced the nobility's power, and established that the first son of the king should always be seen as [[heir apparent]], and succeed his father automatically.<ref name=":4">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 3-page 9''</ref>

On 30 October 1536 Christian convened the [[estates of the realm]] (''Rigsdag'') to [[Copenhagen]], where they formally proclaimed Frederick [[heir apparent]] and successor to the throne, granting him the title "'''Prince of Denmark'''".<ref name=":4" /> In 1542, the Prince travelled around Denmark and was hailed by the people. In the Midsummer of 1548 Christian III and his son Frederick, in a fleet of 7 ships and together with 30 Danish nobles, sailed for [[Oslo]], where Frederick was hailed as heir apparent to the [[Monarchy of Norway|Throne]] of the [[Norway|Kingdom of Norway]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederick II {{!}} king of Denmark and Norway|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-II-king-of-Denmark-and-Norway|access-date=22 July 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> The royal reception included Danish nobles holding fiefs in [[Norway]], received by Prince Frederik on his ship. The entire Norwegian nobility had been summoned to Oslo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Larson, James L. |title=Reforming the north: the kingdoms and churches of Scandinavia, 1520–1545|date=2 January 2014|isbn=978-1-107-68945-9|page=435|oclc=861358270}}</ref>

=== Upbringing ===
While [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] secured control of Denmark and Norway, his and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dorothea's]] children grew up in the bosom of the family. In addition to [[Anne of Denmark, Electress of Saxony|Anna]], who was born in 1532, and Frederik from 1534, the group of siblings consisted of [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Magnus]], born 1540, and [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg|John]], who was born in 1545 and called [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg|John the Younger]], to distinguish him from Christian III's half-brother, [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev|John the Elder]]. Youngest was [[Dorothea of Denmark, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg|a girl]] who was born in 1546 and named after her mother.<ref name=":3" />

It was the usual pedagogical view of the time that parents were so inclined to spoil their own children that the upbringing of the children should be delegated to other members of the family,<ref name=":5">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 1''</ref> typically the child's maternal grandparents. But [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Queen Dorothea]] didn't want to send the children away when in [[Infant|infancy]]. Moreover, [[Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg|her own mother]] was suspected of nurturing Catholic sympathies, and in the religious era, a Lutheran Danish king could not in good conscience expose his child to Catholic influences. Another contributing factor has probably been the royal couple's concern by leaving the children too much out of sight in the tense political situation that prevailed in the first ten years of Frederik's life.<ref name=":5" />

=== Education ===
Frederik's education, although profound and thorough, was focused on the [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] and [[Lutheranism|lutheran]] doctrine, Frederick mainly learning instructions in theology.<ref name=":6">Lockhart, Paul D., page 35</ref> While a princely educational program, which included learning the art of [[stewardship]], diplomacy and war, was proposed and planned by the Danish Chancellor, it was not executed in full as the Danish Chancellor's relationship with [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] deteriorated before the education could begin.<ref name=":7">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 2''</ref>

Life at the court of [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dorothea]] was imbued with a fervent [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Christianity]] with which all their children naturally grew up. In March 1538 [[Chancellor]] Wolfgang von Utenhof proposed an educational program for the young Prince Frederick. He was to have a Danish [[Steward (office)|court steward]], but he also had to work with and be inspected daily by a [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]], who was to be a reliable and sobering man from the [[Holstein]] [[nobility]]. The prince had to learn [[Latin]], German, [[Danish language|Danish]], French and other languages, and when he got older he had to learn [[fencing]] and other chivalry exercises. He was to have 10–15 young men for company both in his studies and in his chivalrous exercises.<ref name=":7" />

To which extent this educational program was followed is not known. In 1541, Frederick aged 7, he began his schooling. Frederick was appointed [[Hans Svaning|Hans Svenning]], a reputed Danish [[Humanism|humanist]] and professor of [[rhetoric]] at [[University of Copenhagen]], as teacher.<ref name=":7" />

=== Dyslexia ===
[[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dorothea]] had probably been expecting a lot from Frederick's schooling.<ref name=":8">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 3''</ref> The son was obviously bright and had a good memory. So much bigger has the disappointment, and the amazement, been when the teaching started. Frederick learned to write beautiful and clear letters, but when it came to reading and spelling, the royal student was "a disaster".<ref name=":8" />

For [[Hans Svaning]], this deranged spelling of Frederick's could only be seen as sloppy and laziness, given that the royal boy otherwise seemed smart enough.<ref name=":9">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 4''</ref> Time and time again, Frederick has been punished, probably not only by the teacher, but also by his strict mother, who would gladly step in if Svaning's teaching was not sufficient.<ref name=":9" />

Because of Frederick's heavy [[dyslexia]], he was perceived by his contemporaries as unlettered and illiterate. Both Frederick's father and mother looked with skepticism at the heir to the throne, and they kept him under the watchful eye of knowledgeable men as far as possible to prevent him from publicly speaking out. Neither did his father entrust Frederik with any administrative duties.<ref name=":8" />

=== Malmøhus ===
[[File:Malmöhus_slott_2.jpg|thumb|317x317px|[[Malmö Castle]] in [[Scania]], where Frederick spent much of his later youth.]]
It was only at the age of 20 in 1554 that Frederik was allowed to hold his own court at [[Malmö Castle]] in [[Scania]], but under the supervision of the middle-aged lensman ('[[Fief]]-man') [[Ejler Hardenberg]], who was appointed the prince's court master. At the same time, political training began, which was put in the hands of the two driven noblemen [[Eiler Rønnow]] and Erik Rosenkrantz.<ref name=":10">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 5''</ref> The years in [[Scania]], must have felt like a liberation for Frederick.<ref name=":9" /> He had finally escaped from the royal court with its tightly regulated existences and pious daily lives. Just outside the moats around [[Malmö Castle]] was the lively trading town of [[Malmö]], which offered a young man all-out experiences.<ref name=":10" />

While spending many of his youth years in [[Scania]], he became known as the "'''[[Sovereign prince|Prince]] of Scania'''" (''princeps Scaniæ'') ({{Langx|da|Fyrste af Skåne}}).<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Bricka|first=Carl Frederik|title=289 (Dansk biografisk Lexikon / V. Bind. Faaborg – Gersdorff)|url=https://runeberg.org/dbl/5/0291.html|access-date=22 July 2020|website=runeberg.org|language=da}}</ref> It is not known whether this title was ever officially decreed to him.<ref name=":11" />

=== Travels to Germany with his brother-in-law ===
{{Further|Grand Tour}}
[[File:Lucas_Cranach_d._J._004.jpg|left|thumb|Frederick II's close friend and companion, [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]].]]
The only political education that Frederik received came from his close friendship with his brother-in-law, [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony|Elector Augustus of Saxony]] (reigned 1553–86). Some authors have later stated that Augustus was "the only strong emotional support" Frederick received in his youth.<ref name=":6" />

Augustus, who was the husband of Frederik's elder sister [[Anne of Denmark, Electress of Saxony|Anne]], took Frederik under his wing, chaperoning him on a trip throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1557–58. Here Frederik made the acquaintance of the new emperor, [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] (reigned 1558–64) at his [[coronation]], his son and heir apparent [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] (emperor 1564–76), [[William the Silent|William of Orange]], and a host of other more prominent German Protestant princes. The experience nurtured in Frederik a lasting appreciation of the great complexity of German politics and a taste for all things military.<ref name=":6" />

This was most troubling to Frederick's father, the ageing [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], who feared that in the Empire Frederick would develop ambitions that would exceed both his abilities and the resources of his kingdoms, and that the trip would ultimately drag Denmark-Norway into the maelstrom of German princely politics.<ref name=":11" />

=== Peder Oxe ===
In 1552, Steward of the Realm, [[Peder Oxe]] (1520–1575), had been raised to Councillor of State (''Rigsraad''). During the spring of 1557, Oxe and [[Christian III of Denmark|the King]] had quarreled over a mutual property exchange. Failing to compromise matters with the King, Oxe had fled to Germany in 1558.