Editing Food preservation (section)

== Traditional techniques ==
Some techniques of food preservation pre-date the [[Neolithic Revolution|dawn of agriculture]]. Others were discovered more recently.

=== Boiling ===
{{Main|Boiling}}
{{See also|Pasteurisation}}
Boiling liquids can kill any existing microbes. Milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them.

=== Burial ===
Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level, or [[desiccant]]s in the soil. Burial may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation. Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant) such as sand, or soil that is frozen.

Many [[root vegetables]] are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a [[storage clamp]] (not to be confused with a [[root cellar]]). Cabbage was traditionally buried during autumn in northern US farms for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce [[sauerkraut]]. A similar process is used in the traditional production of [[kimchi]].

Sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation. If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator, or, in areas of [[permafrost]], a freezer.

In [[Odisha, India]], it is practical to store rice by burying it underground. This method helps to store for three to six months during the dry season.

Butter and similar substances have been preserved as [[bog butter]] in Irish [[peat bogs]] for centuries. [[Century egg]]s are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful ones.

=== Canning ===
[[File:PreservedFood1.jpg|thumb|right|Preserved food]]
{{Main|Canning}}
{{See also|Home canning}}
[[Canning]] involves cooking food, sealing it in sterilized cans or jars, and [[boiling]] the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of [[sterilization (microbiology)|sterilization]]. It was invented by the French confectioner [[Nicolas Appert]].<ref>''Nicolas Appert inventeur et humaniste'' by Jean-Paul Barbier, Paris, 1994 and http://www.appert-aina.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904053635/http://www.appert-aina.com/ |date=4 September 2011 }}</ref> By 1806, this process was used by the French Navy to preserve meat, fruit, vegetables, and even milk.  Although Appert had discovered a new way of preservation, it was not understood until 1864 when [[Louis Pasteur]] found the relationship between microorganisms, food spoilage, and illness.<ref name="nchfp.uga.edu" />

Foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occurs in a [[pressure cooker]]. High-acid fruits like [[Strawberry|strawberries]] require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal vegetables such as [[carrot]]s require longer boiling and the addition of other acidic elements. Low-acid foods, such as vegetables and meats, require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened.

Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can cause gas production and the can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture (underprocessing) and poor [[hygiene]] allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobe]] ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'', which produces an acute toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, however. Cooked [[mushroom]]s, when handled poorly and then canned, can support the growth of ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or subsequent reheating.

=== Confit ===
{{Main|Confit}}
Meat can be preserved by salting it, cooking it at or near {{cvt|100|C}} in some kind of fat (such as [[lard]] or [[tallow]]), and then storing it immersed in the fat. These preparations were popular in Europe before refrigerators became ubiquitous.  They are still popular in France, where the term originates.<ref name=aidells>Bruce Aidells (2012): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YN4t61JFQe4C&pg=PA429 The Great Meat Cookbook]'', page 429. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 632 pages. {{ISBN|9780547241418}}</ref><ref name=jung>Susan Jung (2012): "[https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1073828/truc-confit-fat-fabulous-way-preserve-meat Truc: confit, a fat-fabulous way to preserve meat]". ''Post Magazine'', online article, posted on 2012-11-03, accessed 2019-02-21.</ref> The preparation will keep longer if stored in a cold cellar or buried in cold ground.

=== Cooling ===
{{Main|Refrigeration}}
[[Refrigeration|Cooling]] preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the [[Western world]] by allowing food such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm weather.

Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of [[root cellar]]s and [[icebox]]es. Rural people often did their own [[ice cutting]], whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the [[ice trade]]. Today, root cellaring remains popular among people who value various goals, including [[local food]], [[heirloom plant|heirloom crops]], traditional home [[list of cooking techniques|cooking techniques]], [[family farm]]ing, [[frugality]], [[self-sufficiency]], [[organic farming]], and others.

=== Curing ===
[[File:Prague powder No 1.jpg|thumb|Bag of Prague powder#1, also known as "[[curing salt]]" or "pink salt". It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.]]
{{Main|Curing (food preservation)}}
The earliest form of curing was dehydration or [[Food drying|drying]], used as early as 12,000{{nbsp}}BC. [[Smoking (cooking)|Smoking]] and [[salting (food)|salting]] techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the [[phenol]]s [[syringol]], [[guaiacol]] and [[catechol]].<ref name="Msagati, T. 2012">Msagati, T. (2012). "The Chemistry of Food Additives and Preservatives"</ref> Salt accelerates the drying process using [[osmosis]] and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently [[nitrite]]s have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nummer|first1=Brian|last2=Andress|first2=Elizabeth|title=Curing and Smoking Meats for Home Food Preservation|url=http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/lit_rev/cure_smoke_cure.html|publisher=National Center for Home Food Preservation|date=June 2015|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-date=24 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124073339/http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/lit_rev/cure_smoke_cure.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2015, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] of the [[World Health Organization]] classified [[processed meat]]—i.e., meat that has undergone salting, curing, and smoking—as "carcinogenic to humans".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/news/world-health-organization-says-processed-meat-causes-cancer |title= World Health Organization Says Processed Meat Causes Cancer |author= Stacy Simon |work= Cancer.org |date= 26 October 2015 |access-date= 14 January 2016 |archive-date= 7 January 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170107043239/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/news/world-health-organization-says-processed-meat-causes-cancer |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-34615621 |title = Processed meats do cause cancer – WHO|author= James Gallagher|work= BBC |date=26 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf| title=IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |work= International Agency for Research on Cancer |date= 26 October 2015}}</ref>

=== Fermentation ===
{{Main|Fermentation (food)}}
Some foods, such as many [[cheese]]s, [[wine]]s, and [[beer]]s, are prepared by fermentation. This involves cultivating specific [[Microorganism|microorganisms]] to combat spoilage from other, less benign organisms. These microorganisms keep pathogens in check by producing acid or alcohol, which eventually creates an environment toxic for themselves and other microorganisms.

Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter microorganisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption. Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable.

Water was also turned into alcoholic beverages through fermentation. When water is used to make beer, the boiling during the brewing process may kill bacteria that could make people sick. The barley and other ingredients also infuse the drink with nutrients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment.<ref name="nchfp.uga.edu" /> However, the common belief that premodern people avoided drinking ordinary water is a myth. While people avoided drinking dirty or polluted water, they also avoided using it for the production of beer and wine. Water was visually inspected, smelled, tasted, filtered, and boiled if necessary. It was used for drinking as well as for diluting wine, cooking, and many other processes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Medievalists.net |date=2023-05-28 |title=Did people drink water in the Middle Ages? |url=https://www.medievalists.net/2023/05/drink-water-middle-ages/ |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=Medievalists.net |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Freezing ===
{{Main|Frozen food}}
[[Freezing]] is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.

=== Heating ===
Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with [[perpetual stew]]s.

=== Jellying ===
{{Main|Aspic}}
{{See also|Fruit preserves|Confit}}
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include [[gelatin]], [[agar]], [[maize]] flour, and [[arrowroot]] flour.

Some animal flesh forms a protein gel when cooked. [[Eel|Eels and elvers]], and [[Sipuncula|sipunculid]] worms, are a delicacy in [[Xiamen]], China, as are [[jellied eel]]s in the [[East End of London]], where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. [[British cuisine]] has a rich tradition of [[potted meat]]s. Meat off-cuts were, until the 1950s, preserved in [[aspic]], a gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth. Another form of preservation is setting the cooked food in a container and covering it with a layer of fat. Potted chicken liver can be prepared in this way, and so can [[potted shrimps]], to be served on toast. [[Calf's foot jelly]] used to be prepared for invalids.

Jellying is one of the steps in producing traditional [[pâté]]s. Many [[jugging|jugged meats]] (see below) are also jellied.

Another type of jellying is [[fruit preserves]], which are preparations of cooked fruits, vegetables and sugar, often stored in glass jam jars and [[Mason jar]]s. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as those made from strawberry or apricot, and savory preserves, such as those made from tomatoes or squash. The ingredients used and how they are prepared determine the type of preserves; [[jam]]s, [[jelly (fruit preserves)|jellies]], and [[marmalade]]s are all examples of different styles of fruit preserves that vary based upon the fruit used. In English, the word ''preserves'', in plural form, is used to describe all types of jams and jellies.

=== Jugging ===
{{Main|Jugging}}
Meat can be preserved by jugging. Jugging is the process of [[stewing]] the meat (commonly [[game (food)|game]] or [[fish]]) in a covered [[earthenware]] jug or [[casserole]]. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly sealed jug with brine or [[gravy]], and stewed. [[Red wine]] and/or the animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.

=== ''Kangina'' ===
{{Main|Kangina}}

In rural [[Afghanistan]], grapes are preserved in disc-shaped vessels made of mud and straw, called ''[[kangina]]''. The vessels, which can preserve fresh grapes for up to 6 months, passively control their internal environments to restrict gas exchange and water loss, prolonging the lives of late-harvested grapes stored within them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glinski |first=Stefanie |date=2021-03-25 |title=The Ancient Method That Keeps Afghanistan's Grapes Fresh All Winter |url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-did-people-store-fruit-before-fridges |access-date=2023-12-06 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref>

=== Lye ===
{{Main|Sodium hydroxide#Food preparation}}
[[Sodium hydroxide]] ([[lye]]) makes food too [[alkaline]] for bacterial growth. Lye will [[saponification|saponify]] fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. [[Lutefisk]] uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for [[century egg]]s also call for lye.

=== Pickling ===
{{Main|Pickling}}
Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible, antimicrobial liquid. Pickling can be broadly classified into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling.

In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. Typical pickling agents include [[brine]] (high in salt), [[vinegar]], [[ethanol|alcohol]], and [[vegetable oil]]. Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include [[Pickled cucumber|cucumbers]], [[capsicum|peppers]], [[corned beef]], [[herring]], and [[Pickled egg|eggs]], as well as mixed vegetables such as [[piccalilli]].

In fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid produce [[organic acid]]s as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces [[lactic acid]] through the presence of [[lactobacillales]]. Fermented pickles include [[sauerkraut]], [[nukazuke]], [[kimchi]], and [[surströmming]].

=== Sugaring ===
{{Redirect|Sugaring}}
The earliest cultures have used [[sugar]] as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. "Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them.  In this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage."<ref name="Msagati, T. 2012" /> 

In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, [[preserves]] are made by heating the fruit with sugar.<ref name="nchfp.uga.edu">{{cite web |last1=Nummer |first1=Brian A. |title=National Center for Home Food Preservation {{!}} NCHFP Publications |url=https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html |website=National Center for Home Food Preservation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523123409/https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html |archive-date=23 May 2014 |language=en}}</ref> Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an [[antimicrobial]] syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. The latter method is used for the skins of [[citrus]] fruit (candied peel), [[angelica]], and [[ginger]].