Editing Fernão Pires de Andrade (section)

==Voyages abroad==

===India, Sumatra, and Malacca===
[[Image:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|right|[[Afonso de Albuquerque]], who launched the attack to conquer the [[Malacca Sultanate]] and commissioned the first direct European maritime contacts with China during the [[Ming dynasty]].]]

Fernão Pires de Andrade commanded a vessel in the naval venture of the Portuguese explorer and conqueror [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] from [[Kochi, India|Cochin]] in India to conquer the [[Malacca Sultanate]] in 1511.<ref name="dion 135">Dion, 135.</ref> The Portuguese historian [[João de Barros]] (1496&ndash;1570) wrote that when a violent storm arose as Albuquerque's fleet entered the vast waters between [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Aceh]], a ship commanded by Simão Martinho was sunk, but his entire crew was rescued by Fernão and taken aboard his ship.<ref name="dion 135"/> To make up for this loss, the Portuguese captured and commandeered five ships from [[Gujarat]] that were sailing between Malacca and [[Sumatra]].<ref name="dion 135"/> The small fleet of Albuquerque engaged an enemy "[[Djong (ship)#European age of discovery|junk]]" ship of the Javanese "[[Moors]]" near ''Polvoreira'' (likely ''[[Berhala Island (Malacca Strait)|Pulau Berhala]]'', 160 miles from Malacca, between [[Belawan]], Medan and [[Lumut, Malaysia|Lumut]], Perak).<ref name="dion 138">Dion, 138.</ref><ref name="birch 63">Birch, 63.</ref> According to Barros, they fought against this ship for two days. The enemy crew employed tactics of lighting fire to its own ship as a means to burn Albuquerque's ships as they employed ramming techniques and close-range volleys of artillery.<ref name="dion 138 139">Dion, 138&ndash;139.</ref> Although the ship surrendered; the Portuguese gained such an admiration for the junk and its crew that they nicknamed it ''O Bravo'' (The Brave Junk).<ref name="dion 139">Dion, 139.</ref> The Portuguese crew pleaded with Fernão Pires to convince Albuquerque that the crew should be spared and viewed vassals of Portugal who were simply unaware of who they were actually fighting. Albuquerque eventually agreed to this.<ref name="dion 139"/>

While writing of Afonso de Albuquerque's ventures in Sumatra, João de Barros noted that the Chinese were the first to control trade between Sumatra and India, and noted the presence of Chinese people living in Sumatra.<ref name="dion 144">Dion, 144.</ref> Barros also noted that while Fernão Pires was loading Southeast Asian spices onto his ship in [[Samudera Pasai Sultanate|Pacem]] (a kingdom in Sumatra) in order to sell or present them as gifts in China, two different kings were killed and their position usurped.<ref name="dion 146">Dion, 146.</ref> Apparently the usurpation of kings caused little tumult or crisis in this state, as Barros noted any leader there was believed by the locals not to have divine right to rule if he was able to be killed by a royal kinsman.<ref name="dion 146"/> Historian Mark Dion notes that Fernão related the same story in his writing, only adding that a [[Muslim]] in their society was the only acceptable replacement as ruler.<ref name="dion 146"/>

===Initial contact with China===

After the [[Portuguese Malacca|conquest of Malacca]] in 1511, not only did the Portuguese monopolize the European [[spice]] trade, but they also met and traded avidly with Chinese merchants. When Portuguese under [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]] had earlier arrived in Malacca in 1509 to open trade relations, he was supported by the local Chinese merchants there (along with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchants).<ref>Wolff, 311.</ref> D'Albuquerque sent [[Jorge Álvares]] to explore northward; his expedition sailed along the coast of [[Guangdong]] in 1513 and hoisted a flag on "[[Tuen Mun]] island". This mission was followed up later that year by [[Rafael Perestrello]], who later traded with Chinese merchants of [[Guangzhou|Canton]] in 1516. He provided an enticing report to other Portuguese on the lucrative trade in China. This prompted Andrade to speed up the course of his mission while stalled in Malacca and debate with his crew on whether to go to China or [[Bengal]].<ref name="cambridge 336">Wills, 336.</ref><ref>Dames, 247.</ref>

===Mission of Manuel I to China===

====Choosing the ambassadors====
[[Image:ManuelI-P.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Manuel I of Portugal]], who commissioned Andrade's mission to China.]]

King [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] authorized a trade mission in 1517 when Andrade set sail with seven cannon-armed merchant vessels with a Muslim interpreter on June 17, 1517. Andrade had been chosen for this mission in [[Lisbon]] back in 1515, so that—as a pharmacist—he could investigate the types of [[Traditional Chinese medicine|pharmaceutical drugs used in East Asia]] for the benefit of the Portuguese and Europe.<ref name="cambridge 336"/> [[Florence|Florentine]] merchant Giovanni da Empoli, who had written a report about trade with China while stationed in India, was also chosen for the mission as the chief commercial agent between the Portuguese and Chinese.<ref name="cambridge 336"/> However, Giovanni would die in China during the early mission on October 15, 1517, when the ship he was on accidentally caught on fire.<ref>Dames, 211&ndash;212.</ref> [[Tomé Pires]], a royal [[apothecary]] who had also traveled to India and written a landmark work in 1515 on Asian trade, was chosen as the chief ambassador for the mission.<ref name="cambridge 336"/>

====First contact====
Although the mission was stalled once they lost a ship in the [[Strait of Malacca]],<ref name="cambridge 336"/> they nonetheless landed at the [[Pearl River estuary]] on August 15 with eight ships<ref name="cambridge 336"/> and negotiated with Chinese officials for possible [[silk]] and [[porcelain]] trade at [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. The Chinese naval commander of [[Nantou, Zhongshan|Nantou]] (under the jurisdiction of [[Zhongshan]], located at the mouth of the Pearl River) stalled Andrade's small fleet of ships for an entire month while Andrade waited for permission to sail upriver to Canton.<ref name="cambridge 337">Wills, 337.</ref> After Andrade threatened to sail upriver without permission, the naval commander finally decided to let him pass, granting him pilots to assist his travel.<ref name="cambridge 337"/>

Once the ships sailed into port at Canton, they alarmed the Chinese residents and officials there by discharging cannon fire, what they believed was a friendly salute since the Chinese merchants had done so when the Portuguese earlier arrived in Malacca.<ref name="cambridge 337"/> Chinese officials became even more cautious in dealing with the Portuguese, since the deposed King of Malacca had been a loyal tributary to the imperial Ming court.<ref name="cambridge 337"/> The Portuguese explained that in deposing the Malaccan king, they were helping the Chinese merchants there who were being oppressed under his rule. In the eyes of the Canton officials, this added further negative speculations about the Portuguese visitors, because private Chinese overseas trade was banned under the current [[hai jin]] laws that stated only the Chinese government could conduct foreign trade.<ref name="cambridge 337"/>

[[File:East China Sea Map.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Ryukyu Islands]], where Jorge de Mascarenhas was sent by Andrade.]]
Although the local Canton officials watched the Portuguese and their ships closely, once the [[Province (China)|provincial authorities]] arrived at Canton they greeted the Portuguese with a warm reception, providing them comfortable lodgings and had their trade goods brought ashore.<ref name="cambridge 337"/> The Chinese became suspicious once again of Andrade, this time for being a spy, when he sent a ship along the [[Fujian]] coast to look for further trade prospects, but he left a good impression when he gave the order that any locals who might be harmed by a Portuguese should seek him for redress.<ref name="cambridge 337"/> Besides exploring Fujian, Andrade sent one of his captains named Jorge de Mascarenhas to explore the [[Ryukyu Islands]] after he heard of their beauty while stationed in Malacca.<ref name="Nowell 8">Nowell, 8.</ref>

====Andrade's brother and spoiled relations====

Simão de Andrade, brother to Fernão Pires, sailed from Malacca to China with a small crew on three [[Junk (ship)|junks]] in August 1519.<ref name="cambridge 337 338">Wills, 337&ndash;338.</ref> Simão immediately made a bad impression upon the Chinese when he built a fort at the center of [[Tuen Mun]], an island designated for all foreigners to trade.<ref name="cambridge 337 338"/> Soon after, Simão ceremoniously executed a Portuguese and barred other foreigners (mostly [[Thai people|Siamese]] and other South East Asians) from trading on the island, which drew even more attention to him.<ref name="cambridge 337 338"/> When a Chinese official visited the island and began reasserting Ming authority over it, Simão became aggressive and hit him, knocking the official's hat off.<ref name="cambridge 338">Wills, 338.</ref>

The greatest offense to the Chinese was the supposed kidnapping of children by the Portuguese so they could eat them.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> In reality, Simão had earned the Portuguese a bad reputation for [[Slavery in China|buying young Chinese slaves]], presumably some of whom were kidnapped after Simão offered local Chinese huge sums of money for child slaves.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> In fact, some boys and girls from wealthy Chinese families were later found by Portuguese authorities at [[Diu, India|Diu]] in western India.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> However, there were no official reports of Simão's abuses, even though he stayed until September 1520; yet rumors of his behavior (which became associated with all Portuguese) no doubt reached as far as the court of Beijing, which would soon condemn the Portuguese for this and other reasons.<ref name="cambridge 338"/>

Although he had left Canton, Simão de Andrade landed at [[Xiamen]] and [[Ningbo]], establishing settlements there.<ref name="douglas 11">Douglas, 11.</ref> Simão continued to defy local Chinese laws at Ningbo, and when his men were cheated on a trade deal with a Chinese man in 1545, Simão sent a band of armed men into the town, pillaged it, and took local women and young girls as their captives.<ref name="douglas 11"/><ref name="williams 76">Williams, 76.</ref> The outraged locals banded together and slaughtered the Portuguese under Simão.<ref name="douglas 11"/> A similar episode occurred later when Coelho de Sousa seized the house of a wealthy foreign resident in Jinzhou of [[Fujian]], which led authorities to cut off supplies to the Portuguese; the Portuguese then attacked and ransacked a nearby village for supplies, which prompted Chinese authorities to destroy thirteen of their ships while thirty Portuguese survivors of this settlement fled to the [[Portuguese Macau|Portuguese settlement at Macau]] in 1549.<ref name="williams 76"/><ref name="douglas 11 12">Douglas, 11&ndash;12.</ref>

====End of the mission====
[[Image:Zhengde.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Zhengde Emperor]], who accepted the Portuguese embassy but died before he could finalize relations with Portugal, hence dooming the embassy as conservative factions at court in [[Beijing]] were aligned against those who conquered the Ming's loyal tributary vassal in Malacca.]]
The embassy party left behind in Canton in 1518 proceeded north in January 1520 with the rest of the Portuguese under Tomé Pires and Fernão Pires de Andrade.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> The embassy reached Nanjing, where the Zhengde Emperor was touring in May 1520, granting the Portuguese embassy a quick audience.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> However, further diplomatic negotiations were to be resumed once the emperor returned to Beijing; hence, the Portuguese embassy was sent there to wait for the emperor's return.<ref name="cambridge 338"/>

Although no Chinese sources detail the event, Portuguese sources tell of how the Portuguese were summoned on the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month to ceremoniously prostrate themselves before a wall of the [[Forbidden City]] to seek another audience with the emperor.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> From Beijing, the Portuguese embassy heard reports that the emperor reached [[Tongzhou District, Beijing|Tongzhou]] in January 1521 and had the rebel Prince of Ning executed there.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> The Portuguese embassy had also become aware that ambassadors from the [[Mahmud Shah of Malacca|exiled King of Malacca]] were sent to Beijing seeking assistance from the Chinese emperor in expelling the conquering Portuguese so that their king could be reinstalled there.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> The Portuguese also knew of two officials in the [[Ming dynasty#Government|Censorate]]—Qiu Daolong and He Ao— who sent [[memorials to the throne]] that condemned the Portuguese conquest of Malacca and that their embassy should be rejected.<ref name="cambridge 338 339">Wills, 338&ndash;339.</ref> There were also reports sent to Beijing by Canton officials stating that the Portuguese were bothersome foreigners who sought to build their own trading post.<ref name="cambridge 338 339"/>

With the death of the Zhengde Emperor on April 19, 1521, mourning ceremonies were initiated that cancelled all other ceremonies, including the reception of foreign embassies.<ref name="cambridge 339">Wills, 339.</ref> The newly appointed [[Grand Secretariat|Grand Secretary]], [[Yang Tinghe]], soon turned against the powerful eunuch influence at court, which had grown even more powerful under the Zhengde Emperor.<ref name="cambridge 339"/> Although Ming officials were of the opinion that only foreign tributary states listed during the beginning of the dynasty should be accepted at court, it was the eunuchs who wanted to expand commercial ties with new foreign countries.<ref name="cambridge 339"/> These desires were given free rein under the Zhengde Emperor, who was intrigued with and desired to learn about foreign and exotic peoples.<ref name="cambridge 338"/> However, with his death, eunuch influence at court was challenged by Yang Tinghe, who announced the rejection of the Portuguese embassy under Pires and Andrade the day after the emperor's death; the embassy was forced to leave and arrived back in Canton in September.<ref name="cambridge 339"/>

===Open hostility to reopening of relations===
[[Image:Macau oldmap.jpg|thumb|right|Map of [[Macau Peninsula]] in 1639, long after the first Portuguese settlement there and in the same year that the city began to decline due to halt of trade shipments from Japan.]]

Earlier, in April and May 1521, five Portuguese ships docked at [[Tuen Mun]] to begin trading, but were ordered to leave once officials came to the region to announce the emperor's death.<ref name="cambridge 339"/> The Portuguese refused this demand, so the Chinese sent a naval squadron to drive them out, sinking one ship, killing many, and taking the rest as prisoners ([[First Battle of Tamao (1521)|First Battle of Tamao]]).<ref name="cambridge 339"/> Two more Portuguese vessels arrived in June, were attacked by Chinese ships, but were able to fend off the Chinese attack.<ref name="cambridge 339"/> Three more Portuguese ships barely fended off another attack in September, the same month that Fernão Pires de Andrade and Tomé Pires arrived back at Canton.<ref name="cambridge 339"/> Ming authorities would not permit Fernão and Pires to see the prisoners captured in the sea battles and made inventories of their goods and the goods captured from the Portuguese ships.<ref name="cambridge 339"/>

In August 1522, Martim Afonso de Melo Coutinho arrived at Tuen Mun with three ships, unaware of the conflict and expecting to meet with Chinese officials on establishing consent for a Portuguese trade base in China.<ref name="cambridge 340">Wills, 340.</ref> Two of his ships were captured in a surprise Chinese attack, while the survivors escaped back to Portugal on the third ship (see [[Second Battle of Tamao (1522)|Second Battle of Tamao]]).<ref name="cambridge 340"/><ref name="madureira 150">Madureira, 150.</ref> These encounters and others with the Portuguese brought the first [[Breech-loading weapon|breech-loading]] [[culverin]]s into China, mentioned even by the philosopher and scholar-official [[Wang Yangming]] in 1519 when he suppressed Zhu Chenhao's rebellion in [[Jiangxi]].<ref>Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 369, 372, 374.</ref>

The prisoners of these sea battles were eventually executed in 1523 for crimes of "robbery in the high seas" and cannibalism,<ref name="madureira 150"/> while Tomé Pires was kept prisoner so that he could write letters to the [[King of Portugal]], the Viceroy of [[Portuguese India]], and the Governor of Malacca conveying the [[Jiajing Emperor|new Ming emperor's]] message that the Portuguese should leave Malacca and restore it to the rightful rule of its deposed king.<ref name="cambridge 340"/> By some accounts, Fernão Pires de Andrade simply died while imprisoned;<ref name="williams 76 77"/> others say Andrade was one of those beheaded when a crime of false credentials was placed upon him after a court examined if his embassy was legitimate or spurious due to negative accounts of the Portuguese (i.e. acts committed by those such as Fernão Pires' brother Simào).<ref name="williams 76 77">Williams, 76&ndash;77.</ref><ref name="douglas 10 11">Douglas, 10&ndash;11.</ref> Tomé Pires died while living as a prisoner in China;<ref name="cambridge 340"/> there is speculation on whether Tomé Pires died in 1524 or 1540.<ref name="madureira 150 151">Madureira, 150&ndash;151.</ref> Two survivors of this embassy were still alive around 1536, when they sent letters to Malacca and [[Goa]] detailing plans for how the Portuguese could capture Canton by force.<ref name="cambridge 340"/> Other survivors of these missions retired to nearby Lampaco (Lampa) in Guangdong, where a trade post would exist for several decades; in 1537, there were written records of the Portuguese having three warehouses at Lampa, [[Shangchuan Island]], and [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]], and were initially allowed there with the excuse of drying their goods in a storm.<ref name="douglas 11"/>

Despite initial hostilities, good relations between the Portuguese and Chinese would resume in 1549 with annual Portuguese trade missions to Shangchuan Island, following an event where the Portuguese helped Ming authorities eliminate coastal pirates.<ref name="brook 124">Brook, 124.</ref><ref name="cambridge 342">Wills, 342.</ref> In 1554, Leonel de Sousa—a later [[Governor of Macau]]— established positive relations through [[Luso-Chinese agreement (1554)|an agreement with Cantonese authorities]]<ref>Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&dq=Leonel+de+Sousa+Macau&pg=PA343 The Cambridge history of China, Volume 2; Volume 8], Cambridge University Press, 1978, {{ISBN|0-521-24333-5}}</ref> and in 1557 the Ming court finally gave consent for a permanent and official Portuguese trade base at Macau.<ref name="cambridge 343 344">Wills, 343&ndash;344.</ref> Although Fernão Pires de Andrade and his Portuguese comrades were the first to open up China to the West, another significant diplomatic mission reaching all the way to Beijing would not be carried out until an Italian, the Jesuit [[Matteo Ricci]] (1552&ndash;1610) ventured there in 1598.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}