Editing Epistle to the Galatians (section)

==Background ==

===Surviving early manuscripts===
{{further|Biblical manuscript}}
The original of the letter (autograph) is not known to survive. [[Papyrus 46]], the earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars today, dates to approximately AD 200, around 150 years after the original was drafted.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first= Bart |authorlink = Bart Ehrman |date=2005 |title= Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why |url= https://archive.org/details/misquotingjesuss00ehrm |url-access= registration |publisher= Harper |location= San Francisco |isbn= 0-06-073817-0 |page= [https://archive.org/details/misquotingjesuss00ehrm/page/60 60]}}</ref> This papyrus is fragmented in a few areas, causing some of the original text to be missing. The [[Textual variants in the Epistle to the Galatians|text of surviving manuscripts varies]]. Biblical scholar [[Bruce Metzger]] writes: "through careful research relating to paper construction, handwriting development, and the established principles of textual criticism, scholars can be rather certain about where these errors and changes appeared and what the original text probably said."<ref>{{cite book |last= Metzger |first=Bruce M. | authorlink = Bruce Metzger|title=A Textual Commentary on the New Testament |edition= 2nd |publisher=United Bible Societies |date=1994 |pages=1–16 |isbn= 3-438-06010-8}}</ref>

Surviving early complete and partial manuscripts include:
*[[Papyrus 46]] (~AD 200)
*[[Codex Vaticanus]] (325-350)
*[[Codex Sinaiticus]] (330-360)
*[[Papyrus 51]] (~400)
*[[Papyrus 99]] (~400)
*[[Uncial 0176]] (4th/5th century)<ref>{{Cite book
 | last = Aland
 | first = Kurt
 | authorlink = Kurt Aland
 | last2 = Aland
 | first2 = Barbara
 | authorlink2 = Barbara Aland
 | others = Erroll F. Rhodes (trans.)
 | title = The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism
 | publisher = [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]]
 | year = 1995
 | location = Grand Rapids
 | page = 124
 | url = 
 | doi = 
 | id = 
 | isbn = 978-0-8028-4098-1}}</ref> 
*[[Codex Alexandrinus]] (400-440)
*[[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus]] (~450)
*[[Codex Freerianus]] (~450)
*[[Codex Claromontanus]] (~550)

=== Authorship and date ===
==== Authorship ====
{{Main|Authorship of the Pauline Epistles}}
Biblical scholars agree that Galatians is a true example of Paul's writing. The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus. George S. Duncan described its authenticity as "unquestioned. In every line it betrays its origin as a genuine letter of Paul."<ref>{{Cite book |last= Duncan |first= George S. | authorlink = George Duncan (biblical scholar)|title= The Epistle of Paul to the Galatians|publisher= Hodder & Stoughton |year= 1934 |location=London|page =xviii}}</ref>

==== Date ====
A majority of scholars agree that Galatians was written between the late 40s and early 50s,<ref>[[Michael Coogan|M. Coogan]], ed. ''The New Oxford Annotated Bible'' ([[Oxford University Press]]: New York, 2001), 309 NT.</ref> although some date the original composition to {{circa|50–60}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/galatians.html |title=Galatians |website= Early Christian Writings}}</ref> Jon Jordan notes that an interesting point to be made in the search for the dating of Galatians concerns whether or not it is a response to the [[Council of Jerusalem]] or a factor leading up to the Council. He writes, "did Paul's argument in Galatians flow out of the Jerusalem Council's decision, or did it come before the Jerusalem Council and possibly help shape that very decision?"<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Jordan |first1=Jon R.|title= From Law to Logos : reading St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians|date=2016 |publisher= Wipf & Stock| last2 = Still | first2 = Todd D. |author2-link=Todd D. Still |isbn= 978-1-4982-8971-9 |location= Eugene, [[Oregon|ON]] |oclc= 975120128}}</ref> It would have been enormously helpful to Paul's argument if he could have mentioned the decision of the Council of Jerusalem that Gentiles should not be circumcised. The absence of this argument from Paul strongly implies Galatians was written prior to the council. Since the council took place in 48–49 AD, and Paul evangelized South Galatia in 47–48 AD, the most plausible date for the writing of Galatians is 48 AD.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Introduction to the Book of Galatians|title=ESV Study Bible|publisher=Crossway|date=2008|isbn=978-1433502415}}</ref>

=== Audience ===
Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches of Galatia",<ref>{{bibleref|Galatians|1:2|9}}</ref> but the location of these churches is a matter of debate. Most scholars agree that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and [[Phrygia]]", which lies immediately west of Galatia.<ref>{{bibleref |Acts|16:6}} and {{bibleref|Acts|18:23}}</ref> Some scholars have argued that "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to ''[[Galatians (people)|Galatians]],'' a [[Celt]]ic people living in northern [[Asia Minor]].

The New Testament indicates that Paul spent time personally in the cities of Galatia ([[Antioch of Pisidia]], [[Iconium]], [[Lystra]] and [[Derbe]]) during his missionary journeys.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts 13:13; 14:1; 14:8|multi=yes}}; {{bibleverse|Galatians|1:6; 4:13; 4:19||9}}</ref> They seem to have been composed mainly of Gentile converts.<ref>{{bibleref|Galatians|4:8|9}}</ref> After Paul's departure, the churches were led astray from Paul's trust/faith-centered teachings by individuals proposing "another gospel" (which centered on salvation through the [[Mosaic Law]], so-called [[Legalism (theology)|legalism]]), whom Paul saw as preaching a "different gospel" from what Paul had taught.<ref>{{bibleref2|Galatians|1:6–9|9|Galatians 1:1–9}}</ref> The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.<ref name=":1" />

The identity of these "opponents" is disputed. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as Jewish Christians, who taught that in order for converts to belong to the [[People of God]], they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law (i.e. [[Judaizer]]s). The letter indicates [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|controversy concerning circumcision]], [[Biblical Sabbath|Sabbath observance]], and the [[Biblical law in Christianity|Mosaic Covenant]]. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of [[Abraham]], who was [[Religious male circumcision|circumcised]] as a mark of receiving the [[Covenant (biblical)#Abrahamic covenant|covenant blessings]].<ref>{{bibleref|Genesis|17|9}}</ref> They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an [[apostle]], perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem church]] governed by [[James (brother of Jesus)]].{{Sfn | Betz | 2007}}

====North Galatian view====
The North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia.<ref>{{bibleref|Acts|18:23|9}}</ref> In this view, the visit to [[Jerusalem]], mentioned in [[Galatians 2#Verses 1–10|Galatians 2:1–10]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|2:1–10|9}}</ref> is identical with that of [[Acts 15]], which is spoken of as a thing of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written after the [[Council of Jerusalem]].  The similarity between this epistle and the epistle to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at roughly the same time, during Paul's stay in [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] in roughly 56–57.<ref name= "evans">{{cite book| last= McDonald|first= Lee Martin|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oP3k4TNiDWMC&pg=PA462 | series =The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary | title = Acts–Philemon | volume = 2 |date= 2004|publisher=Victor|isbn= 978-0-78144006-6 |editor-last=Evans|editor-first=Craig|editor-link=Craig A. Evans|location=Colorado Springs, Colorado|page=462|chapter= Introduction to Galatians}}</ref><ref>{{bibleref2|Acts|20:2–3|9|Acts 20:2–3}}</ref>

This third date takes the word "quickly" in {{bibleverse|Galatians|1:6|9|Gal. 1:6}} literally.<ref name= "evans" /> [[John P. Meier]] suggests that Galatians was "written in the middle or late 50s, only a few years after the Antiochene incident he narrates".<ref>{{cite book|last1= Brown |first1= Raymond E.|author-link1=Raymond E. Brown |title= Antioch & Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity |last2= Meier |first2= John P.|author-link2=John P. Meier|date=1983|publisher= Paulist Press|isbn= 978-0-80912532-6|location=New York|page= 113}}</ref> Eminent biblical scholar [[Helmut Koester]] also subscribes to the "North Galatian Hypothesis". Koester points out that the cities of Galatia in the north consist of Ankyra, Pessinus, and Gordium (of the [[Gordian Knot]] fame of [[Alexander the Great]]).<ref>{{cite book |last= Koester |first=Helmut|authorlink=Helmut Koester|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thXUHM5udTcC&pg=PA114 |title=Introduction to the New Testament | volume = 2|date=2000 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter|isbn= 3-11-014693-2 |location=Berlin |page= 114}}</ref>

====South Galatian view====
The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have traveled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian,<ref>{{bibleref|Acts|9:30}}</ref> or during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia. If it was written to the believers in South Galatia, it would likely have been written in 49.<ref name="evans" />

====Earliest epistle====
A third theory{{Sfn | Fung | 1988 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=THYUsu7sLGEC&pg=PA16  16–22]}}<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.theologywebsite.com/nt/galatians.shtml|title= New Testament Study Helps: Galatians|website=Theology WebSite|access-date=2007-07-11 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070928170851/http://www.theologywebsite.com/nt/galatians.shtml|archive-date= 2007-09-28 |url-status= dead}}</ref> is that Galatians 2:1–10 describes Paul and Barnabas' visit to Jerusalem described in Acts 11:30 and 12:25. This theory holds that the epistle was written before the Council was convened, possibly making it the earliest of Paul's epistles. According to this theory, the revelation mentioned (Gal. 2:2) corresponds with the prophecy of Agabus (Acts 11:27–28). This view holds that the private speaking about the gospel shared among the Gentiles precludes the Acts 15 visit, but fits perfectly with [[Acts 11]]. It further holds that continuing to remember the poor (Gal. 2:10) fits with the purpose of the Acts 11 visit, but not Acts 15.{{Sfn | Fung | 1988 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=THYUsu7sLGEC&pg=PA19 19]}}

In addition, the exclusion of any mention of the letter of [[Acts 15]] is seen to indicate that such a letter did not yet exist, since Paul would have been likely to use it against the legalism confronted in Galatians. Finally, this view doubts Paul's confrontation of Peter (Gal. 2:11) would have been necessary after the events described in Acts 15. If this view is correct, the epistle should be dated somewhere around 47, depending on other difficult-to-date events, such as Paul's conversion.{{Sfn | Fung | 1988 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=THYUsu7sLGEC&pg=PA19 19]}}

[[Kirsopp Lake]] found this view less likely and wondered why it would be necessary for the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15) to take place at all if the issue were settled in Acts 11:30/12:25, as this view holds.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lake|first= Kirsopp|authorlink=Kirsopp Lake|chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/thebeginningsofc05unknuoft/page/200 |title= The Beginnings of Christianity | volume = 5|date=1933|publisher= Macmillan |editor1-last=Foakes-Jackson|editor1-first= F. J.|editor-link=F. J. Foakes-Jackson|location= London |page= 201|chapter= The Apostolic Council of Jerusalem|editor2-last=Lake|editor2-first= Kirsopp}}</ref> Defenders of the view do not think it unlikely an issue of such magnitude would need to be discussed more than once.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshall|first=I. H.|authorlink=I. Howard Marshall|title= The Acts of the Apostles|date=1980| series = [[Tyndale New Testament Commentaries]]| publisher = William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | location=Grand Rapids|page= 205}}</ref> New Testament scholar [[Joseph Lightfoot|J.B. Lightfoot]] also objected to this view since it "clearly implies that his [Paul's] Apostolic office and labours were well known and recognized before this conference."{{Sfn | Fung | 1988 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=THYUsu7sLGEC&pg=PA19  19]}}

Defenders of this view, such as [[Ronald Fung]], disagree with both parts of Lightfoot's statement, insisting Paul received his "Apostolic Office" at his conversion (Gal. 1:15–17; [[Acts 9]]). Fung holds, then, that Paul's apostolic mission began almost immediately in Damascus (Acts 9:20). While accepting that Paul's apostolic anointing was likely only recognized by the Apostles in Jerusalem during the events described in [[Galatians 2]]/Acts 11:30, Fung does not see this as a problem for this theory.{{Sfn | Fung | 1988 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=THYUsu7sLGEC&pg=PA19 19]}}

=== Paul's opponents ===
Scholars have debated whether it is possible to reconstruct the arguments against which Paul is arguing. Though these opponents have traditionally been designated as [[Judaizers]], this classification has fallen out of favor in contemporary scholarship.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last1= Lyons |first1= George |authorlink = George Lyons (theologian) |title= Galatians: a commentary in the Wesleyan tradition |publisher=Beacon Hill Press of Kansas City |isbn= 978-0-8341-2402-8 |location=Kansas City, Missouri |oclc= 436028350 |year= 2012}}</ref> Some instead refer to them as Agitators. While many scholars have claimed that Paul's opponents were circumcisionist Jewish followers of Jesus, the ability to make such determinations with a reasonable degree of certainty has been called into question.<ref name= ":6" /> It has often been presumed that they traveled from Jerusalem, but some commentators have raised the question of whether they may have actually been insiders familiar with the dynamics of the community. Furthermore, some commentaries and articles pointed out the inherent problems in mirror-reading, emphasizing that there is not sufficient evidence to reconstruct the arguments of Paul's opponents.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Galatians: a new translation with introduction and commentary|date=1997|publisher= Doubleday| last = Martyn | first = James Louis |isbn= 0-385-08838-8 |edition= 1st|location= New York|oclc= 36001181}}</ref> It is not enough to simply reverse his denials and assertions as it does not result in a coherent argument nor can it possibly reflect the thought processes of his opponents accurately. It is nearly impossible to reconstruct the opponents from Paul's text because their representation is necessarily polemical.  All that can be said with any certainty is that they supported a different position of Gentile relations with Jews than Paul did.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= Keener |first1= Craig S. |authorlink=Craig S. Keener |title= Galatians |isbn= 978-1-108-42681-7 |location= Cambridge, [[United Kingdom|UK]] |oclc= 1004849095|date= 2018}}</ref>