Editing Epistemology (section)

== Definition ==
Epistemology is the philosophical study of [[knowledge]] and related concepts, such as [[Justification (epistemology)|justification]]. Also called ''theory of knowledge'',{{efn|Less commonly, the term "[[gnoseology]]" is also used as a synonym.<ref>{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster|2024}}</ref>}} it examines [[Definitions of knowledge|the nature]] and types of knowledge. It further investigates the sources of knowledge, like [[perception]], [[inference]], and [[testimony]], to understand how knowledge is created. Another set of questions concerns the extent and limits of knowledge, addressing what people can and cannot know.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=49–50}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=Introduction: 1. What Is Epistemology?}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ 3]}} }}</ref> Central concepts in epistemology include [[belief]], [[truth]], [[evidence]], and [[reason]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fumerton|2006|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ 4]}} }}</ref> As one of the main branches of philosophy, epistemology stands alongside fields like [[ethics]], [[logic]], and [[metaphysics]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brenner|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} |2={{harvnb|Palmquist|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NOKjGp7NHtUC&pg=PA800 800]}} |3={{harvnb|Jenicek|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kWC1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> The term can also refer specific positions of philosophers within this branch, as in [[Plato]]'s epistemology and [[Immanuel Kant]]'s epistemology.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Moss|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq8SEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref>

Epistemology explores how people should acquire beliefs. It determines which beliefs or forms of belief acquisition meet the standards or epistemic goals of knowledge and which ones fail, thereby providing an evaluation of beliefs. The fields of [[psychology]] and [[cognitive sociology]] are also interested in beliefs and related cognitive processes, but examine them from a different perspective. Unlike epistemology, they study the beliefs people actually have and how people acquire them instead of examining the evaluative norms of these processes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=Introduction: 1. What Is Epistemology?}} }}</ref> In this regard, epistemology is a [[Normativity|normative]] discipline,{{efn|Normative disciplines study how things ought to be, focusing on norms of right and wrong or criteria of evaluation. They contrast with descriptive disciplines, which examine individual facts and general patterns of how things actually are.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Barseghyan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hxRoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12–14]}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} }}</ref>}} whereas psychology and cognitive sociology are descriptive disciplines.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}}</ref>{{efn|Despite this contrast, epistemologists may rely on insights from the empirical sciences in formulating their normative theories.<ref>{{harvnb|O′Donohue|Kitchener|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T7uYSFSxxVkC&pg=PA2 2]}}</ref> According to one interpretation, the aim of naturalized epistemology is to answer descriptive questions, but this characterization is disputed.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=192}} | {{harvnb|Mi|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wDx1SG8tS5oC&pg=PA113 113, 115]}} }}</ref>}} Epistemology is relevant to many descriptive and normative disciplines, such as the other branches of philosophy and the sciences, by exploring the principles of how they may arrive at knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Audi|2003|pp=258–259}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=3–4}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

The word ''epistemology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek]] terms {{lang|grc|ἐπιστήμη}} ({{Transliteration|grc|episteme}}, meaning ''knowledge'' or ''understanding'') and {{lang|grc|λόγος}} ({{Transliteration|grc|logos}}, meaning ''study of'' or ''reason''), [[Literal translation|literally]], the study of knowledge. Despite its ancient roots, the word itself was only coined in the 19th century to designate this field as a distinct branch of philosophy.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Scott|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G8aOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 30]}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=3}} }}</ref>{{efn|As a label for a branch of philosophy, the term "epistemology" was first employed in 1854 by James E. Ferrier.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=3}}</ref> In a different context, the word was used as early as 1847 in New York's ''Eclectic Magazine''.<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford University Press|2024}}</ref> As the term had not been coined before the 19th century, earlier philosophers did not explicitly label their theories as epistemology and often explored it in combination with [[psychology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|2006|pp=1–2}}</ref> According to philosopher Thomas Sturm, it is an open question how relevant the epistemological problems addressed by past philosophers are to contemporary philosophy.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=308–309}}</ref>}}