Editing Encyclopædia Britannica (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|l1 = History of the Encyclopædia Britannica}}
[[File:Houghton Typ 705.71.363 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1771 - title page.jpg|thumb|The title page of the first edition of the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}}, published in 1771]]
Past owners have included, in chronological order, the [[Edinburgh]], Scotland-based printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, [[Horace Everett Hooper]], [[Sears]] Roebuck, [[William Benton (senator)|William Benton]], and [[Jacqui Safra]], a Swiss billionaire of [[New York City|New York]].

Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, ''Encarta'' and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias.<ref name="web" /> To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the ''Britannica'', reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on [[CD-ROM]], DVD, and the [[World Wide Web]]. Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.<ref name="encyclopaedia_1954">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1954 |title=Encyclopaedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=14th}} Aside from providing a summary of the ''Britannica''{{'s}} history and early spin-off products, this article also describes the life-cycle of a typical ''Britannica'' edition. A new edition typically begins with strong sales that decay as the encyclopaedia becomes outdated. When work on a new edition is begun, sales of the old edition stop, just when fiscal needs are greatest: a new editorial staff must be assembled, articles commissioned. Elkan Harrison Powell identified this fluctuation of income as a danger to any encyclopaedia, one he hoped to overcome with continuous revision.</ref>

=== Editions ===
The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the [[#Edition summary|Table]] below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. The 15th underwent massive reorganization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.

Throughout history, the ''Britannica'' has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material.<ref name="EB_encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Encyclopedias and Dictionaries |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |edition=15th |volume=18 |pages=257–286}}</ref> In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.<ref name="propedia_preface">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |location=Chicago, Illinois |pages=5–8 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref> The history of the ''Britannica'' can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or reorganization of the dictionary.

==== 1768–1826 ====
[[File:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|The early 19th-century editions of {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} included influential, original research such as [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young's]] article on Egypt, which included the translation of the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] on the [[Rosetta Stone]] (pictured).]]
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the ''Britannica'' was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others. The ''Britannica'' was first published between December 1768<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Encyclopaedia|volume=9|page=377}}</ref> and 1771 in [[Edinburgh]] as the ''Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan''. In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' of [[Denis Diderot]] and [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] (published 1751–1772), which had been inspired by [[Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Chambers's ''Cyclopaedia'']] (first edition 1728). It went on sale 10&nbsp;December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica {{!}} History, Editions, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-English-language-reference-work |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

The ''Britannica'' of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise, and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Herman |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur L. Herman |title=How the Scots Invented the Modern World |title-link=How the Scots Invented the Modern World |publisher=Three Rivers Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-609-80999-0}}</ref> In this era, the ''Britannica'' moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—[[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=Collier's Encyclopedia |publisher=Macmillan Educational Company |location=New York |volume=9 |pages=135 |lccn=91061165 |last2=Balou |first2=Patricia K. |last1=Krapp |first1=Philip}} The ''Britannica''{{'s}} 1st edition is described as "deplorably inaccurate and unscientific" in places.</ref>—to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities.<ref name="KafkerLoveland2009" /> Several other encyclopaedias competed throughout this period, among them editions of [[Abraham Rees]]'s ''Cyclopædia'' and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge's]] ''[[Encyclopædia Metropolitana]]'' and [[David Brewster]]'s ''[[Edinburgh Encyclopædia]]''.

==== 1827–1901 ====
During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the ''Britannica'' was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably [[Macvey Napier]], others were attracted by the ''Britannica''{{'s}} reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.

Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all ''Britannicas''.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="kogan_1958">{{cite book |last=Kogan |first=Herman |url=https://archive.org/details/greatebstoryo00koga_1 |title=The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1958 |location=Chicago, Illinois |language=en |lccn=58008379 |url-access=registration}}</ref> After 1880, Baynes was assisted by [[William Robertson Smith]].<ref>{{Cite SBDEL|wstitle=Baynes, Thomas Spencer}}</ref> No biographies of living persons were included.<ref>{{Cite EB9|wstitle=Editor's Advertisement|volume=1}}</ref> [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[Thomas Huxley]] were special advisors on science.<ref>{{Cite EB9|wstitle=Prefatory Notice}}</ref> However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the ''Britannica'' faced financial difficulties.

==== 1901–1973 ====
[[File:EncycBrit1913.jpg|thumb|An advertisement for the 11th edition, published in the May 1913 issue of ''[[National Geographic]]'']]
[[File:Shipping box for the encyclopedia Britannica 2013-04-13 12-24.jpg|alt=A wooden crate reading "THE / ENCYCLOPAEDIA / BRITANNICA / STANDARD OF THE WORLD / FOURTEENTH EDITION / BLUE CLOTH / BOOKS KEEP DRY"|thumb|A wooden shipping crate for the 14th edition of the ''Britannica'']]
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the ''Britannica'' was managed by American businessmen who introduced [[direct marketing]] and [[door-to-door]] sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on the project.<ref name="kogan_1958" />

When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the ''Britannica'' was managed by [[Sears Roebuck]] for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the ''Britannica''; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions.<ref name="encyclopaedia_1954" /> Powell developed new educational products that built upon the ''Britannica''{{'s}} reputation.

In 1943, Sears donated the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} to the [[University of Chicago]]. [[William Benton (senator)|William Benton]], then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock.<ref>''Chicago Tribune'', 22 February 1945.</ref> Benton became chairman of the board and managed the ''Britannica'' until his death in 1973.<ref>''Chicago Tribune'', 28 January 1943.</ref> Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the ''Britannica'' until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Feder |first=Barnaby J. |date=19 December 1995 |title=Deal Is Set for Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/19/business/deal-is-set-for-encyclopaedia-britannica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521234943/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/19/business/deal-is-set-for-encyclopaedia-britannica.html |archive-date=21 May 2020 |access-date=2 May 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> In 1968, the ''Britannica'' celebrated [[Bicentennial of the Encyclopædia Britannica|its bicentennial]].

==== 1974–1994 ====
<!-- "Encyclopædia Britannica Fifteenth Edition" (and several alt spellings) redirect here. See MOS:HIDDENLINKADVICE -->
In the fourth era (1974–1994), the ''Britannica'' introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the {{lang|la|Micropædia}}, the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}, and the {{lang|la|Propædia}}. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of ''Britannica'' from 1965),<ref>Mortimer J. Adler, ''A Guidebook to Learning: for the lifelong pursuit of wisdom''. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986, p. 88.</ref> the ''Britannica'' sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the {{lang|la|Micro-}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="15th_criticism">{{multiref2|{{cite news | last = Baker | first = John F. | title = A New Britannica Is Born | work = [[Publishers Weekly]] | date = 14 January 1974 | pages = 64–65}}|{{cite news | last = Wolff | first = Geoffrey | title = Britannica 3, History of | work = [[The Atlantic Monthly|The Atlantic]] |date = June 1974| pages = 37–47}}|{{cite news | last = Cole | first = Dorothy Ethlyn | title = Britannica 3 as a Reference Tool: A Review | publisher = Wilson Library Bulletin |date = June 1974| pages = 821–825 | quote = ''Britannica 3'' is difficult to use&nbsp;... the division of content between {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}} makes it necessary to consult another volume in the majority of cases; indeed, it was our experience that even simple searches might involve eight or nine volumes.}}|{{cite news | last = Davis | first = Robert Gorham | title = Subject: The Universe | work = [[The New York Times Book Review]] | date = 1 December 1974 | pages = 98–100}}|{{cite news | last = Hazo | first = Robert G. | title = The Guest Word | work = [[The New York Times Book Review]] | date = 9 March 1975 | page = 31}}|{{cite magazine | last = McCracken| first = Samuel | title = The Scandal of 'Britannica 3' | magazine = [[Commentary (magazine)|Commentary]] |date = February 1976| pages = 63–68 | quote = This arrangement has nothing to recommend it except commercial novelty.}}|{{cite news | last = Waite | first = Dennis V. | title = Encyclopædia Britannica: EB 3, Two Years Later | work = [[Publishers Weekly]] | date = 21 June 1976 | pages = 44–45}}|{{cite news | last = Wolff | first = Geoffrey | title = Britannica 3, Failures of | work = [[The Atlantic Monthly|The Atlantic]] |date = November 1976| pages = 107–110 | quote = It is called the {{lang|la|Micropædia}}, for 'little knowledge', and little knowledge is what it provides. It has proved to be grotesquely inadequate as an index, radically constricting the utility of the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}.}}
}}</ref> In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised through the release of the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the ''New Encyclopædia Britannica'', although it has also been promoted as ''Britannica 3''.<ref name="kister_1994" />

On 9 March 1976 the US [[Federal Trade Commission]] entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.<ref>{{cite web |title=In the Matter of Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. et al. |url=https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-87/ftc_volume_decision_87_january_-_june_1976pages_400-541.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025095028/https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-87/ftc_volume_decision_87_january_-_june_1976pages_400-541.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2015 |access-date=11 December 2015 |pages=421–541}}</ref>

==== 1994–present ====
[[File:Eb advert 1898.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|An 1898 advertisement for the 9th edition]]
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on [[Optical disc|optical media]] and online.

In 1996, the ''Britannica'' was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Incorporated, developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, [[Ilan Yeshua]], who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the ''Britannica'' name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, [[Jorge Cauz]], announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.<ref name="nytstop" /><ref name="cnn-stop">{{cite news |last=Pepitone |first=Julianne |date=13 March 2012 |title=Encyclopedia Britannica to stop printing books |url=https://money.cnn.com/2012/03/13/technology/encyclopedia-britannica-books/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314232429/http://money.cnn.com/2012/03/13/technology/encyclopedia-britannica-books/ |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=14 March 2012 |publisher=[[CNN]]}}</ref>

''Britannica''{{'s}} final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set.<ref name="nytstop" /> ''Britannica Global Edition'' was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain {{lang|la|Macro-}} and {{lang|la|Micropædia}} sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had. The following is ''Britannica''{{'s}} description of the work:<ref name="store.britannica.com" />

{{blockquote|The editors of {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}}, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the ''Britannica Global Edition''. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and essential articles drawn from the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} itself, as well as from the ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia'', the ''Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions'', and Compton's by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.}}

In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the ''Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't'', an encyclopaedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was ''Britannica''<nowiki/>'s first encyclopaedia for children since 1984.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The new Children's Britannica: a fantastic voyage through the history of the world |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/non-fiction/new-childrens-britannica-fantastic-voyage-history-world/amp/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/non-fiction/new-childrens-britannica-fantastic-voyage-history-world/amp/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 November 2020 |title=Why printed encyclopedias for children are more important than ever |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/britannica-encyclopedia-children-universe-facts-book-b1720986.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110131928/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/britannica-encyclopedia-children-universe-facts-book-b1720986.html |archive-date=10 January 2021 |access-date=6 January 2021 |website=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=8 October 2020 |title=Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia edited by Christopher Lloyd |url=https://schoolreadinglist.co.uk/childrens-book-reviews/britannica-childrens-encyclopedia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214215003/https://schoolreadinglist.co.uk/childrens-book-reviews/britannica-childrens-encyclopedia/ |archive-date=14 December 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021 |website=The School Reading List}}</ref>

=== Dedications ===
The ''Britannica'' was [[Dedication (publishing)|dedicated]] to the reigning [[British monarchy|British monarch]] from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States.<ref name="kister_1994" /> Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty [[George V of the United Kingdom|George the Fifth]], [[King of Great Britain and Ireland]] and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, [[Emperor of India]], and to [[William Howard Taft]], President of the United States of America."<ref name="EB_1911">{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=1910 |edition=11th |page=3}}</ref> The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Dwight David Eisenhower]], President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth the Second]]."<ref name="EB_1954">{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=1954 |edition=14th |page=3}}</ref>