Editing Edinburgh Castle (section)

==History==
===Pre-history of the Castle Rock===
====Geology====

{{Main|Castle Rock, Edinburgh}}

[[File:Crag and tail.png|thumb|Diagram of a crag and tail feature, such as the Castle Rock: '''A''' is the crag formed from the volcanic plug, '''B''' is the tail of softer rock, and '''C''' shows the direction of ice movement. In the case of Edinburgh, the castle stands on the crag ('''A''') with the Royal Mile extending along the tail ('''B''')]]

The castle stands upon the [[Volcanic plug|plug]] of an [[extinct volcano]], which is estimated to have risen about 350 million years ago during the lower [[Carboniferous]] period. The Castle Rock is the remains of a [[volcanic pipe]], which cut through the surrounding [[sedimentary rock]] before cooling to form very hard [[dolerite]], a type of [[basalt]]. Subsequent [[glaciology|glacial erosion]] was resisted by the dolerite, which protected the softer rock to the east, leaving a [[crag and tail]] formation.<ref>McAdam, p. 16.</ref>

The summit of the Castle Rock is {{convert|130|m|ft}} above sea level, with rocky cliffs to the south, west, and north, rising to a height of {{convert|80|m|ft}} above the surrounding landscape.<ref>MacIvor (1993), p. 16.</ref> This means that the only readily accessible route to the castle lies to the east, where the ridge slopes more gently. The defensive advantage of such a site is self-evident, but the geology of the rock also presents difficulties, since basalt is extremely impermeable. Providing water to the Upper Ward of the castle was problematic, and despite the sinking of a {{convert|34|m|adj=on}} deep well, the water supply often ran out during drought or siege,<ref>Dunbar, p. 192.</ref> including during the Lang Siege in 1573.<ref name=Potter137/>

==== Earliest habitation ====
{{see also|Prehistoric Scotland|Castle of Maidens}}

[[File:Edinburgh Castle from Grass Market.jpg|thumb|left|The castle is built on a volcanic rock, as seen here in a 19th-century view from the [[Grassmarket]] area]]

An archaeological investigation has yet to establish when the Castle Rock was first used for human habitation. There is no record of any Roman interest in the location during [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|General Agricola]]'s invasion of northern Britain near the end of the 1st century AD. [[Ptolemy]]'s map of the 2nd century AD<ref>Harris, p. 11.</ref> shows a settlement in the territory of the [[Votadini]] named "Alauna", meaning "rock place", making this possibly the earliest known name for the Castle Rock.<ref>Moffat, pp. 268–270.</ref> This could, however, refer to another of the tribe's hill forts in the area. The ''Orygynale Cronykil'' of [[Andrew of Wyntoun]] (c. 1350 – c. 1423), an early source for [[Scottish history]], names "Ebrawce" ([[Ebraucus]]), a [[List of legendary kings of Britain|legendary King of the Britons]], as having "byggyd [built] Edynburgh".<ref>Andrew of Wyntoun, ''Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland'', quoted in Masson, p. 1.</ref> According to the earlier chronicler, [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (c. 1100 – c. 1155), Ebraucus had fifty children by his twenty wives, and was the founder of "Kaerebrauc" ([[York]]), "Alclud" ([[Dumbarton]]) and the "Maidens' Castle".<ref>Geoffrey of Monmouth, pp. 78–79.</ref> The 16th-century English writer [[John Stow]] (c. 1525 – 1605), credited Ebraucus with building "the Castell of Maidens called Edenbrough" in 989 BC.<ref>Stow, John, ''Generale Chronicle of England'', quoted in Masson, p. 1.</ref> The name "Maidens' Castle" ({{langx|la|Castra}} or ''{{lang|la|Castellum Puellarum}}'') occurs frequently up until the 16th century.<ref>Potter, p. 12.</ref> It appears in charters of [[David I of Scotland|David I]] (r. 1124–1153) and his successors in the [[Kingdom of Scotland]],<ref>Wilson (1887), p. 298.</ref> although the reason for it is not known. [[William Camden]]'s survey of Britain, ''Britannia'' (1607), records that "the Britans called [it] Castle Myned Agned [winged rock], the Scots, the Maidens Castle and the Virgins Castle, of certaine young maidens of the Picts roiall bloud who were kept there in old time".<ref>{{cite book |author=Camden, William |author-link=William Camden |year=1607 |others=trans. [[Philemon Holland]] |url=http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/cambrit/scoteng.html#loth4 |chapter=Lauden or Lothien |title=Britannia |access-date=23 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407080045/http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/cambrit/scoteng.html#loth4 |archive-date=7 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the 17th-century antiquarian Father Richard Hay, the "maidens" were a group of nuns, who were ejected from the castle and replaced by [[Canon (priest)|canons]], considered "fitter to live among soldiers".<ref>Halkerston, pp. 8–9: Gillies, p. 3.</ref> However, this story was considered "apocryphal" by the 19th-century antiquarian [[Daniel Wilson (academic)|Daniel Wilson]] and has been ignored by historians since.<ref>Wilson claimed that Father Hay had "no better authority for this nunnery than the misleading name castellum Puellarum". Wilson (1891), vol. 1, p. 4, note 4.</ref> The name may have been derived from a "Cult of the Nine Maidens" type of legend. [[Arthurian legend]]s suggest that the site once held a shrine to [[Morgan le Fay|Morgain la Fee]], one of nine sisters.<ref>McKean (1991), p. 1.</ref> Later, St Monenna, said to be one of nine companions, reputedly invested a church at Edinburgh, as well as at Dumbarton and other places.<ref>Grant (c. 1890), p. 15: McHardy, pp. 13–20.</ref> [[Maiden Castle (disambiguation)|Similar names]] are shared by many other [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] [[oppidum|hillforts]] and may have simply described a castle that had never been taken by force<ref>Potter, p. 141.</ref> or derived from an earlier [[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]] name like ''mag dun''.<ref>[[Patrick Chalmers (MP)|Chalmers]], cited in Chambers, pp. 35–36.</ref><ref>Macritchie.</ref>

[[File:Edinburgh Castle from the North.JPG|thumb|The Castle seen from the North]]

An archaeological excavation in the early 1990s uncovered evidence of the site having been settled during the late [[Bronze Age]] or early [[Iron Age]], potentially making Castle Rock the longest continuously occupied site in Scotland.<ref>The claim is advanced by {{harvtxt|Driscoll|Yeoman|1997|p=2}} Driscoll & Yeoman, p. 2, although a similar claim is made for other sites including [[Dumbarton Rock]] and [[Kilmartin Glen]].</ref> However, the extent of the finds was not particularly significant and insufficient to draw any certain conclusions about the precise nature or scale of this earliest known phase of occupation.<ref>Driscoll & Yeoman, p. 220.</ref>

The archaeological evidence is more reliable concerning the Iron Age. Traditionally, it had been supposed that the [[Scottish people|tribes]] of central Scotland had made little or no use of the Castle Rock. Excavations at nearby [[Arthur's Seat|Dunsapie Hill]], [[Duddingston]], [[Inveresk]] and [[Traprain Law]] had revealed relatively large settlements and it was supposed that these sites had been chosen in preference to the Castle Rock. However, the excavation in the 1990s pointed to the probable existence of an enclosed [[hillfort]] on the rock, although only the fringes of the site were excavated. House fragments revealed were similar to Iron Age dwellings previously found in Northumbria.<ref>Driscoll & Yeoman, pp. 222–223.</ref>

The 1990s dig revealed clear signs of habitation from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, consistent with [[Ptolemy]]'s reference to "Alauna". Signs of occupation included some [[Roman Britain|Roman]] material, including pottery, bronzes and brooches, implying a possible trading relationship between the Votadini and the Romans beginning with [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola's]] northern campaign in AD 82, and continuing through to the establishment of the [[Antonine Wall]] around AD 140. The nature of the settlement in this period is inconclusive, but Driscoll and Yeoman suggest it may have been a [[broch]], similar to the one at [[Edin's Hall Broch|Edin's Hall]] near [[Duns, Scottish Borders|Duns]] in the [[Scottish Borders]].<ref>Driscoll & Yeoman, p. 226.</ref>

=== Early Middle Ages ===
[[File:Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|Map of northern Britain showing the Gododdin and other tribes c.600 AD]]

The castle does not re-appear in contemporary historical records from the time of Ptolemy until around AD 600. Then, in the epic [[Old Welsh|Welsh]] poem ''[[Y Gododdin]]'' there is a reference to Din Eidyn, "the stronghold of [[Eidyn]]". This has been generally assumed to refer to the Castle Rock.<ref>MacQuarrie, pp. 29–30.</ref> The poem tells of the [[Gododdin]] King [[Mynyddog Mwynfawr]],<ref>It has been suggested that this is not a proper name of a ruler at all, but rather adjectives used to refer to the warband as a whole. For further discussion cf. {{cite journal |author=Koch, John |title=Thoughts on the Ur-Goddodin |journal=[[Language Sciences]] |volume=15 |year=1993 |page=81 |doi=10.1016/0388-0001(93)90019-O |issue=2}} and {{cite journal |author=Isaac, Graham |title=Mynyddog Mwynfawr |journal=[[Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies]] |volume=37 |year=1990 |page=111 }}</ref> and his band of warriors, who, after a year of feasting in their fortress, set out to do battle with the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] at "Catreath" (possibly [[Catterick, North Yorkshire|Catterick]]) in Yorkshire. Despite performing glorious deeds of valour and bravery, the poem relates that the Gododdin were massacred.<ref>MacIvor, p. 23.</ref>

The [[Irish annals]] record that in 638, after the events related in ''Y Gododdin'', "Etin" was besieged by the Angles under [[Oswald of Northumbria]], and the Gododdin were defeated.<ref>MacQuarrie, p. 37.</ref> The territory around Edinburgh then became part of the [[Northumbria|Kingdom of Northumbria]], which was itself absorbed by [[Kingdom of England|England]] in the 10th century. Lothian became part of Scotland, during the reign of [[Indulf of Scotland|Indulf]] (r.954–962).<ref>Lynch, p. 46.</ref>

The archaeological evidence for the period in question is based entirely on the analysis of [[midden]]s (domestic refuse heaps), with no evidence of structures. Few conclusions can therefore be derived about the status of the settlement during this period, although the midden deposits show no clear break since Roman times.<ref name=DY227>Driscoll & Yeoman, p. 227.</ref>

=== High Middle Ages ===
{{further|Scotland in the High Middle Ages}}

[[File:StMargareth edinburgh castle.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|alt=A blue-robed woman wearing a crown|[[Saint Margaret of Scotland|St Margaret]], depicted in a stained glass window in the chapel of Edinburgh Castle]]

The first documentary reference to a castle at Edinburgh is [[John of Fordun]]'s account of the death of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|King Malcolm III]] (1031–1093). Fordun describes his widow, the future [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Saint Margaret]], as residing at the "Castle of Maidens" when she is brought news of his death in November 1093. Fordun's account goes on to relate how Margaret died of grief within days, and how Malcolm's brother [[Donald III of Scotland|Donald Bane]] laid siege to the castle. However, Fordun's chronicle was not written until the later 14th century, and the near-contemporary account of the life of St Margaret by [[Thurgot|Bishop Turgot]] makes no mention of a castle.<ref>Tabraham (1997), p. 13.</ref> During the reigns of Malcolm III and his sons, Edinburgh Castle became one of the most significant royal centres in Scotland.<ref name=MI28>MacIvor (1993), p. 28.</ref> Malcolm's son [[Edgar I of Scotland|King Edgar]] died here in 1107.<ref name=MI30>MacIvor (1993), p. 30.</ref>

Malcolm's youngest son, [[David I of Scotland|King David I]] (r.1124–1153), developed Edinburgh as a seat of royal power principally through his administrative reforms (termed by some modern scholars the [[Davidian Revolution]]).<ref>See Lynch, pp. 79–83.</ref> Between 1139 and 1150, David held an assembly of nobles and churchmen, a precursor to the [[parliament of Scotland]], at the castle.<ref name=MI28/> Any buildings or defences would probably have been of timber,<ref name="Tabraham2008–49"/> although two stone buildings are documented as having existed in the 12th century. Of these, [[St. Margaret's Chapel]] remains at the summit of the rock. The second was a church, dedicated to [[St. Mary]], which stood on the site of the Scottish National War Memorial.<ref name="Tabraham2008–49">Tabraham (2008), p. 49.</ref> Given that the southern part of the Upper Ward (where Crown Square is now sited) was not suited to be built upon until the construction of the vaults in the 15th century, it seems probable that any earlier buildings would have been located towards the northern part of the rock; that is around the area where St. Margaret's Chapel stands. This has been suggested that the chapel is the last remnant of a square, stone keep, which would have formed the bulk of the 12th-century fortification.<ref>Fernie, pp. 400–403.</ref> The structure may have been similar to the keep of [[Carlisle Castle]], which David I began after 1135.<ref name="Tabraham 1997, p.23">Tabraham (1997), p. 23.</ref>

David's successor [[Malcolm IV of Scotland|King Malcolm IV]] (r.1153–1165) reportedly stayed at Edinburgh more than at any other location.<ref name=MI30/> But in 1174, [[William I of Scotland|King William "the Lion"]] (r.1165–1214) was captured by the English at the [[Battle of Alnwick (1174)|Battle of Alnwick]]. He was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Falaise]] to secure his release, in return for surrendering Edinburgh Castle, along with the castles of [[Berwick Castle|Berwick]], [[Roxburgh Castle|Roxburgh]] and [[Stirling Castle|Stirling]], to the English King, [[Henry II of England|Henry II]]. The castle was occupied by the English for twelve years, until 1186, when it was returned to William as the [[dowry]] of his English bride, [[Ermengarde de Beaumont]], who had been chosen for him by King Henry.<ref name=Salter46>Salter, p. 46.</ref> By the end of the 12th century, Edinburgh Castle was established as the main repository of Scotland's official state papers.<ref>MacIvor (1993), p. 31.</ref>

=== Wars of Scottish Independence ===

[[File:RobertBruceAndWilliamWallace.jpg|thumb|right|Statues of Robert the Bruce by Thomas Clapperton and William Wallace by Alexander Carrick were added to the Gatehouse entrance in 1929]]

A century later, in 1286, on the death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|King Alexander III]], the throne of Scotland became vacant. [[Edward I of England]] was appointed to adjudicate the [[Competitors for the Crown of Scotland|competing claims]] for the Scottish crown, but used the opportunity to attempt to establish himself as the feudal overlord of Scotland. During the negotiations, Edward stayed briefly at Edinburgh Castle and may have received homage there from the Scottish nobles.<ref name=MacIvor33>MacIvor (1993), p. 33.</ref>

In March 1296, Edward I invaded Scotland, unleashing the [[First War of Scottish Independence]]. Edinburgh Castle soon came under English control, surrendering after a three-day-long bombardment.<ref>Tabraham (1997), p. 56.</ref> Following the siege, Edward had many Scottish legal records and royal treasures moved from the castle to England.<ref name=MacIvor33/> A large garrison numbering 325 men was installed in 1300.<ref>Lynch, p. 120.</ref> Edward also brought to Scotland his master builders of the Welsh castles, including Thomas de Houghton and Master Walter of Hereford, both of whom travelled from Wales to Edinburgh.<ref>Cruden, pp. 70–71.</ref> After the death of Edward I in 1307, however, England's control over Scotland weakened. On 14 March 1314, a surprise night attack by [[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray]] recaptured the castle. [[John Barbour (poet)|John Barbour]]'s narrative poem ''[[The Brus]]'' relates how a party of thirty hand-picked men was guided by one William Francis, a member of the garrison who knew of a route along the north face of the Castle Rock and a place where the wall might be scaled. Making the difficult ascent, Randolph's men scaled the wall, surprised the garrison and took control.<ref>Douglas, A. A. H. (1964), ''The Bruce'', Glasgow: William Maclennan, pp. 249–254.</ref> [[Robert the Bruce]] immediately ordered the [[slighting]] of the castle to prevent its re-occupation by the English.<ref>Tabraham (2008), p. 50.</ref> Four months later, his army secured victory at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]].<ref>G W S Barrow, Robert Bruce, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 1988, p.195 and Chapter 12.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cornell |first1=David |title=A Kingdom Cleared of Castles: the Role of the Castle in the Campaigns of Robert Bruce |journal=Scottish Historical Review |date=March 2009 |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=233–257 |doi=10.3366/E0036924108000140 |s2cid=153554882 |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/full/10.3366/E0036924108000140}}</ref>

After Bruce's death in 1329, [[Edward III of England]] determined to renew the attempted subjugation of Scotland and supported the claim of [[Edward Balliol]], son of the former King [[John of Scotland|John Balliol]], over that of Bruce's young son [[David II of Scotland|David II]]. Edward invaded in 1333, marking the start of the [[Second War of Scottish Independence]], and the English forces reoccupied and refortified Edinburgh Castle in 1335,<ref name="Tabraham2008–51"/> holding it until 1341. This time, the Scottish assault was led by [[William Douglas, Lord of Liddesdale]]. Douglas's party disguised themselves as merchants from [[Leith]] bringing supplies to the garrison. Driving a cart into the entrance, they halted it there to prevent the gates from closing. A larger force hidden nearby rushed to join them and the castle was retaken.<ref name=Salter46/> The 100 English men of the garrison were all killed.<ref name="Tabraham2008–51">Tabraham (2008), p. 51.</ref>

=== David's Tower and the 15th century ===
The 1357 [[Treaty of Berwick (1357)|Treaty of Berwick]] brought the Wars of Independence to a close. David II resumed his rule and set about rebuilding Edinburgh Castle which became his principal seat of government.<ref>Lynch, p. 136.</ref> David's Tower was begun around 1367, and was incomplete when David died at the castle in 1371. It was completed by his successor, [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert II]], in the 1370s. The tower stood on the site of the present Half Moon Battery connected by a section of [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] to the smaller Constable's Tower, a round tower built between 1375 and 1379 where the Portcullis Gate now stands.<ref name=Salter46/><ref name=BoS85-86>McWilliam, ''et al''.. pp. 85–89.</ref>

[[File:Braun & Hogenberg 'Castrum Puellarum' (Edinburgh Castle) c.1581.jpg|thumb|right|A late-16th-century depiction of the castle, from Braun & Hogenberg's [[Georg Braun|''Civitates orbis terrarum'']], showing David's Tower at the centre]]

In the early 15th century, another English invasion, this time under [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]], reached Edinburgh Castle and began a siege, but eventually withdrew due to lack of supplies.<ref name=Salter46/> At least by 1436-7, Sir [[William Crichton, 1st Lord Crichton|William Crichton]] was Keeper or Governor of Edinburgh Castle,<ref>Tabraham (1997), p. 91.</ref> and soon after became [[Chancellor of Scotland]]. In an attempt to gain the [[regent|regency]] of Scotland, Crichton sought to break the power of the [[Earl of Douglas|Douglases]], the principal noble family in the kingdom. The 16-year-old [[William Douglas, 6th Earl of Douglas]], and his younger brother David were summoned to Edinburgh Castle in November 1440. After the so-called "Black Dinner" had taken place in David's Tower, both boys were summarily executed on trumped-up charges in the presence of the 10-year-old [[James II of Scotland|King James II]] (r.1437–1460). Douglas' supporters subsequently besieged the castle, inflicting damage.<ref name=Salter47>Salter, p. 47.</ref> Construction continued throughout this period, with the area now known as Crown Square being laid out over [[vault (architecture)|vaults]] in the 1430s. Royal apartments were built, forming the nucleus of the later palace block, and a Great Hall was in existence by 1458. In 1464, access to the castle was improved when the current approach road up the north-east side of the rock was created to allow easier movement of the royal artillery train in and out of the area now known as the Upper Ward.<ref name=BoS85-86/>

In 1479, [[Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany]], was imprisoned in David's Tower for plotting against his brother, [[James III of Scotland|King James III]] (r.1460–1488). He escaped by getting his guards drunk, and then lowering himself from a window on a rope.<ref name=Salter47/> The duke fled to France, then England, where he allied himself with King [[Edward IV]]. In 1482, Albany [[capture of Berwick (1482)|marched into Scotland]] with [[Richard III of England|Richard, Duke of Gloucester]] (later King Richard III), and an English army. James III was trapped in the castle from 22 July to 29 September 1482 until he successfully negotiated a settlement.<ref name=Salter47/>

[[File:Impression of Edinburgh Castle before the 'Lang Siege' of 1573.jpg|thumb|left|Edinburgh Castle as it may have looked before the Lang Siege of 1571–73, with David's Tower and the Palace block, centre and left]]

During the 15th century, the castle was increasingly used as an [[arsenal]] and armaments factory.<ref>David Caldwell, [https://www.historicenvironment.scot/archives-and-research/publications/publication/?publicationId=6954070f-2dca-4776-af22-a93f00a5e64e ''Edinburgh Castle's Role as a Gun House''] (Historic Environment Scotland, 2018), p. 2.</ref> The first known purchase of a gun was in 1384, and the "great [[Bombard (weapon)|bombard]]" [[Mons Meg]] was delivered to Edinburgh in 1457.<ref name="Tabraham 1997, p.76">Tabraham (1997), p.76.</ref> The first recorded mention of an [[Armory (military)|armoury]] for the manufacture of guns occurs in 1474, and by 1498 the master gunner Robert Borthwick was casting bronze guns at Edinburgh.<ref>Cruden, pp.206–208, although neither the 16th-century [[Holinshed's Chronicles]] nor Caldwell (pp.76–78) date Borthwick this early.</ref> By 1511 Edinburgh was the principal foundry in Scotland, supplanting Stirling Castle, with Scottish and European smiths working under Borthwick, who by 1512 was appointed "master melter of the king's guns".<ref>Caldwell, pp. 76–77.</ref> Their output included guns for the Scottish flagship, the "''[[Great Michael]]''", and the "Seven Sisters", a set of cannons captured by the English at [[Battle of Flodden|Flodden]] in 1513.<ref>Cruden, p. 209.</ref> Sir Thomas Howard, England's Lord Admiral, admired their graceful shape and brilliant finish, declaring them the most beautiful [cannon] for their size and length that he had ever seen.<ref>Mackenzie, W. Mackay (1931), ''The Secret of Flodden'', Edinburgh: Grant & Murray, p. 50.</ref> From 1510 Dutch craftsmen were also producing [[hand culverin]]s, an early [[firearm]].<ref>Caldwell, p. 81.</ref> After Flodden, Borthwick continued his work, producing an unknown number of guns, but none have survived. He was succeeded by French smiths, who began manufacturing [[hagbut]]s (another type of firearm) in the 1550s,<ref>Caldwell, p. 78.</ref> and by 1541 the castle had a stock of 413.<ref>Cruden, p. 211.</ref>

Meanwhile, the royal family began to stay more frequently at the [[Holyrood Abbey|Abbey of Holyrood]], about {{convert|1|mi}} from the castle. Around the end of the fifteenth century, [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV]] (r.1488–1513) built the [[Palace of Holyroodhouse]], by the abbey, as his principal Edinburgh residence and the castle's role as a royal home subsequently declined.<ref name=Salter47/> James IV did, however, construct the Great Hall, which was completed in the early 16th century,<ref name=BoS85-86/> and the castle featured in his tournaments of the [[Wild Knight and the Black Lady]].<ref>Louise Olga Fradenburg, ''City, Marriage, Tournament: Arts of Rule in Late Medieval Scotland'' (University of Wisconsin, 1991), p. 230.</ref> His daughter [[Margaret Drummond (mistress)|Margaret Stewart]] was lodged in the castle with her servant [[Ellen More]].<ref>[[Miranda Kaufmann|Kaufmann, Miranda]], ''Black Tudors: The Untold Story'' (London, 2017), pp. 17–18.</ref>

{{clear}}

===16th century and the Lang Siege===

[[File:Sir William Kirkcaldy of the Grange by Jean Clouet.jpg|thumb|upright|right|alt=Painting of a man with a red moustache|Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange, who held the castle on behalf of Queen Mary during the Lang Siege of 1571–73. Painting by [[Jean Clouet]]]]

James IV was killed in battle at [[Battle of Flodden Field|Flodden Field]], on 9 September 1513. Expecting the English to press their advantage, the Scots hastily constructed a [[Edinburgh town walls|town wall]] around Edinburgh and augmented the castle's defences. Robert Borthwick and a Frenchman, [[Antoine d'Arces]], were involved in designing new artillery defences and fortifications in 1514, though it appears from lack of evidence that little of the planned work was carried out.<ref>MacIvor (1981), p. 105.</ref> Three years later, [[James V of Scotland|King James V]] (r.1513–1542), still only five years old, was brought to the castle for safety.<ref name=Salter47/> Upon his death 25 years later, the crown passed to his week-old daughter, [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]. English invasions followed, as King [[Henry VIII]] attempted to [[Rough Wooing|force a dynastic marriage]] on Scotland.<ref name=BoS85-86/> When the [[Burning of Edinburgh|English burnt Edinburgh in May 1544]] the gunner [[Andrew Mansioun]] firing from the castle destroyed an English cannon placed to bombard the forework.<ref>''Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. 8 (Edinburgh, 1908), p. 127.</ref> In 1547 disaffected members of the garrison who resented [[Regent Arran]] came to [[Norham Castle]] and offered to let the English in.<ref>Joseph Bain, ''Calendar State Papers Scotland: 1547–1563'', vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1898), p. 58.</ref>

Refortification in 1548 included an earthen angle-bastion, known as the Spur, of the type known as ''[[trace italienne]]'', one of the earliest examples in Britain.<ref name=tab104/> [[Brunstane Castle]] the home of the traitor [[Alexander Crichton of Brunstane|Alexander Crichton]] was demolished to provide building materials.<ref>''Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911), pp. xxviii, 161–3, 166–7, 172–3: ''Calendar State Papers Scotland'', vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1898), p. 93.</ref> The Spur may have been designed by [[Migliorino Ubaldini]], an Italian engineer from the court of [[Henry II of France]],<ref name=tab104>Tabraham (1997), pp. 104–105.</ref> and was said to have the [[coat of arms of France|arms of France]] carved on it.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=88430 |title=Spain: July 1551, 16–31 |journal=Calendar of State Papers, Spain |volume=10 |pages=330–341 |access-date=27 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909130218/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=88430 |archive-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> James V's widow, [[Mary of Guise]], acted as [[regent]] from 1554 until her death at the castle in 1560.<ref name=Salter47/>

The following year, the [[Roman Catholicism in Scotland|Catholic]] Mary, Queen of Scots, returned from France to begin her reign, which was marred by crises and quarrels among the powerful [[Scottish Reformation|Protestant]] Scottish nobility. In 1565, the Queen made an unpopular marriage with [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]. On 19 June 1566 in a small room of the Palace at Edinburgh Castle, she gave birth to their son [[James VI and I|James]], who would later be King of both Scotland and England. Mary made plans to repair the castle and make it somewhat fairer than it had been.<ref>Allan J. Crosby, ''Calendar State Papers Foreign Elizabeth, 1566–1568'' (London, 1871), p. 96 no. 535.</ref> Mary's reign was, however, brought to an abrupt end. Three months after the [[murder of Darnley]] at Kirk o' Field in 1567, she married [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]], one of the chief murder suspects. A large proportion of the nobility rebelled, resulting ultimately in the imprisonment and [[Act Anent the demission of the Crown in favour of our Sovereign Lord, and his Majesty's Coronation 1567|forced abdication]] of Mary at [[Lochleven Castle]]. She escaped and fled to [[Kingdom of England|England]], but some of the nobility remained faithful to her cause. Edinburgh Castle was initially handed by its captain, [[James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich|James Balfour]], to the [[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray|Regent Moray]], who had forced Mary's abdication and now held power in the name of the infant King James VI. Shortly after the [[Battle of Langside]], in May 1568, Moray appointed [[William Kirkcaldy of Grange|Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange]] Keeper of the Castle.<ref name=Salter47/>
[[File:Edinburgh Castle during the 'Lang Siege' (May 1573).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|alt=A bird's-eye view of the castle surrounded by artillery|Detail from a contemporary drawing of Edinburgh Castle under siege in 1573, showing it surrounded by attacking batteries]]

Grange was a trusted lieutenant of the Regent, but after Moray's murder in January 1570 his allegiance to the King's cause began to waver. [[Marian civil war|Intermittent civil war]] continued between the supporters of the two monarchs, and in April 1571 [[Dumbarton Castle]] fell to "the King's men". Under the influence of [[William Maitland of Lethington]], Mary's secretary, Grange changed sides, occupying the town and castle of Edinburgh for Queen Mary, and against the new regent, the [[Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox|Earl of Lennox]].<ref>Potter, p. 56.</ref> The stand-off which followed was not resolved until two years later, and became known as the "Lang Siege", from the [[Scots language|Scots]] word for "long". Hostilities began in May, with a month-long siege of the town, and a second short siege in October. Blockades and skirmishing continued meanwhile, and Grange continued to refortify the castle. The King's party appealed to [[Elizabeth I]] of England for assistance, as they lacked the artillery and money required to reduce the castle, and feared that Grange would receive aid from France and the [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba|Duke of Alba]] in the [[Spanish Netherlands]].<ref>Potter, p. 100.</ref> Elizabeth sent ambassadors to negotiate, and in July 1572 a truce was agreed and the blockade lifted. The town was effectively surrendered to the King's party, with Grange confined to the castle.<ref>Potter, p. 105.</ref>

The truce expired on 1 January 1573, and Grange began bombarding the town. His supplies of powder and shot, however, were running low, and despite having 40 cannons available, there were only seven gunners in the garrison.<ref name="Potter, p.131">Potter, p. 131.</ref> The King's forces, now with the [[James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton|Earl of Morton]] in charge as regent, were making headway with plans for a siege. Trenches were dug to surround the castle, and St Margaret's Well was poisoned.<ref>Potter, pp. 121–122.</ref> By February, all Queen Mary's other supporters had surrendered to the Regent, but Grange resolved to resist despite water shortages within the castle. The garrison continued to bombard the town, killing a number of citizens. They also made sorties to set fires, burning 100 houses in the town and then firing on anyone attempting to put out the flames.<ref>Potter, p. 125.</ref>

[[File:Sir William Drury from NPG.jpg|thumb|upright|right|alt=Painting of a man with dark hair and large moustache|Sir William Drury, commander of Elizabeth I of England's Protestant troops who brought the Lang Siege to an end in 1573. Unknown artist]]

In April, a force of around 1,000 English troops, led by [[William Drury|Sir William Drury]], arrived in Edinburgh. They were followed by 27 cannons from [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]],<ref name="Potter, p.131"/> including one that had been cast within Edinburgh Castle and captured by the English at Flodden.<ref name=Salter47/> The English troops built an artillery emplacement on Castle Hill, immediately facing the east walls of the castle, and five others to the north, west and south. By 17 May these batteries were ready, and the bombardment began. Over the next 12 days, the gunners dispatched around 3,000 shots at the castle.<ref name=Potter137/> On 22 May, the south wall of David's Tower collapsed, and the next day the Constable's Tower also fell. The debris blocked the castle entrance, as well as the Fore Well, although this had already run dry.<ref name=Potter137>Potter, p. 137.</ref> On 26 May, the English attacked and captured the Spur, the outer fortification of the castle, which had been isolated by the collapse. The following day Grange emerged from the castle by a ladder after calling for a ceasefire to allow negotiations for a surrender to take place. When it was made clear that he would not be allowed to go free even if he ended the siege, Grange resolved to continue the resistance, but the garrison threatened to mutiny. He therefore arranged for Drury and his men to enter the castle on 28 May, preferring to surrender to the English rather than the Regent Morton.<ref>Potter, pp. 139–140.</ref> Edinburgh Castle was handed over to [[George Douglas of Parkhead]], the Regent's brother, and the garrison was allowed to go free.<ref>Gray, p. 45.</ref> In contrast, Kirkcaldy of Grange, his brother James and two jewellers, [[James Mosman|James Mossman]] and [[James Cockie|James Cokke]], who had been minting coins in Mary's name inside the castle, were hanged at the [[Mercat Cross, Edinburgh|Cross in Edinburgh]] on 3 August.<ref>Potter, p.146: Pitcairn, vol.2, pp.45–46: {{cite journal |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=44252 |title=Elizabeth: August 1573, no.713 |journal=Calendar of State Papers, Scotland |volume=4 |page=604 |year=1905 |access-date=7 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821163339/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=44252 |archive-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Nova Scotia and Civil War ===
Much of the castle was subsequently rebuilt by Regent Morton, including the Spur, the new Half Moon Battery and the Portcullis Gate. Some of these works were supervised by [[William MacDowall]], the master of work who fifteen years earlier had repaired David's Tower.<ref>MacIvor (1993), p. 69.</ref> The Half Moon Battery, while impressive in size, is considered by historians to have been an ineffective and outdated artillery fortification.<ref>MacIvor (1981), p. 146.</ref> This may have been due to a shortage of resources, although the battery's position obscuring the ancient David's Tower and enhancing the prominence of the palace block, has been seen as a significant decision.<ref>Howard, p. 35.</ref>

The battered palace block remained unused, particularly after James VI departed to become King of England in 1603.<ref>Tabraham (2008), p. 55.</ref> James had repairs carried out in 1584, and in 1615–1616 more extensive repairs were carried out in preparation for his return visit to Scotland.<ref>Tabraham (2008), p. 52.</ref> The mason [[William Wallace (mason)|William Wallace]] and master of works [[James Murray (architect)|James Murray]] introduced an early Scottish example of the double-pile block.<ref>Howard, p. 81.</ref> The principal external features were the three, three-storey [[oriel window]]s on the east façade, facing the town and emphasising that this was a palace rather than just a place of defence.<ref>Howard, p. 38.</ref> During his visit in 1617, James held court in the refurbished palace block, but still preferred to sleep at Holyrood.<ref name=BoS85-86/>
[[File:Edinburgh Castle Nova Scotia.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Photo of a bronze plaque|Memorial plaque to Sir William Alexander, on the Castle Esplanade]]

In 1621, King James granted [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|Sir William Alexander]] the land in North America between [[New England]] and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], as ''[[Nova Scotia]]'' ("New Scotland"). To promote the settlement and [[plantation]] of the new territory, the [[Baronetage of Nova Scotia]] was created in 1624. Under [[Scots law]], [[baronet]]s had to "take [[sasine]]" by symbolically receiving the earth and stone of the land of which they were baronet. To make this possible, since Nova Scotia was so distant, the King declared that sasine could be taken either in the new province or alternatively "at the castle of Edinburgh as the most eminent and principal place of Scotland."<ref>McGrail, p. 91.</ref>

James' successor, [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]], visited Edinburgh Castle only once, hosting a feast in the Great Hall and staying the night before his Scottish coronation in 1633. This was the last occasion that a reigning monarch resided in the castle.<ref name=Salter47/> In 1639, in response to Charles' attempts to impose [[Episcopal polity|Episcopacy]] on the [[Church of Scotland|Scottish Church]], [[Bishops' Wars|civil war]] broke out between the King's forces and the Presbyterian [[Covenanter]]s. The Covenanters, led by [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven|Alexander Leslie]], captured Edinburgh Castle after a short siege, although it was restored to Charles after the [[Treaty of Berwick (1639)|Peace of Berwick]] in June the same year. The peace was short-lived, however, and the following year the Covenanters took the castle again, this time after a three-month siege, during which the garrison ran out of supplies. The Spur was badly damaged and was demolished in the 1640s.<ref name=BoS85-86/> The Royalist commander [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose]], was imprisoned here after his capture in 1650.<ref name=Salter48>Salter, p. 48.</ref>

In May 1650, the Covenanters signed the [[Treaty of Breda (1650)|Treaty of Breda]], allying themselves with the exiled [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] against the [[Roundhead|English Parliamentarians]], who had executed his father the previous year. In response to the Scots proclaiming Charles King, [[Oliver Cromwell]] launched an invasion of Scotland, defeating the Covenanter army at [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] in September. Edinburgh Castle was taken after a three-month siege, which caused further damage. The Governor of the Castle, Colonel Walter Dundas, surrendered to Cromwell despite having enough supplies to hold out, allegedly from a desire to change sides.<ref name=Salter48/>

===Garrison fortress: Jacobites and prisoners of war===
[[File:Prospect of Edinburgh Castle from the East (c.1753).jpg|thumb|An engraving of Edinburgh Castle made shortly before the creation of the Esplanade was begun in 1753]]
After his [[English Restoration|Restoration]] in 1660, Charles II opted to maintain a full-time [[standing army]] based on Cromwell's [[New Model Army]]. From this time until 1923, a garrison was continuously maintained at the castle.<ref>MacIvor (1993), p. 82.</ref> The medieval royal castle was transformed into a garrison fortress, but continued to see military and political action. The [[Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll|Marquis of Argyll]] was imprisoned here in 1661, when [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] settled old scores with his enemies following his return to the throne. Twenty years later, Argyll's son, the [[Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll|9th Earl of Argyll]], was also imprisoned in the castle for religious [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|Nonconformism]] in the reign of [[James II of England|King James VII]]. He escaped by disguising himself as his sister's [[footman]], but was recaptured and returned to the castle after his failed rebellion to oust James from the throne in 1685.<ref name=Salter48/>

James VII was deposed and exiled by the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, which installed [[William III of England|William of Orange]] as King of England. Not long after, in early 1689, the [[Parliament of Scotland|Estates of Scotland]], after convening to accept William formally as their new king, demanded that [[George Gordon, 1st Duke of Gordon|Duke of Gordon]], Governor of the Castle, surrender the fortress. Gordon, who had been appointed by James VII as a fellow Catholic, refused. In March 1689, the castle was blockaded by 7,000 troops against a garrison of 160 men, further weakened by religious disputes. On 18 March, [[John Graham, 1st Viscount of Dundee|Viscount Dundee]], intent on raising a rebellion in the Highlands, climbed up the western side of the Castle Rock to urge Gordon to hold the castle against the new King.<ref>Scott, p. 101.</ref> Gordon agreed, but during the ensuing siege he refused to fire upon the town, while the besiegers inflicted little damage on the castle. Despite Dundee's initial successes in the north, Gordon eventually surrendered on 14 June, due to dwindling supplies and having lost 70 men during the three-month siege.<ref>Gray, pp. 59–63.</ref><ref>Tabraham (2008), p. 58.</ref>
[[File:edinpain.JPG|thumb|left|upright|alt=Painting of the castle under a stormy sky|''Edinburgh Castle with the Nor Loch in foreground'', around 1780, by [[Alexander Nasmyth]]]]

The castle was almost taken in the [[Jacobite rising of 1715|first Jacobite rising]] in support of [[James Francis Edward Stuart|James Stuart]], the "Old Pretender", in 1715. On 8 September, just two days after the rising began, a party of around 100 Jacobite Highlanders, led by [[James Drummond, 2nd Duke of Perth|Lord Drummond]], attempted to scale the walls with the assistance of members of the garrison. However, the rope ladder lowered by the castle sentries was too short, and the alarm was raised after a change of the watch. The Jacobites fled, while the deserters within the castle were hanged or flogged.<ref>Gray, pp. 65–66.</ref> In 1728, [[George Wade|General Wade]] reported that the castle's defences were decayed and inadequate,<ref name=Salter48/> and a major strengthening of the fortifications was carried out throughout the 1720s and 1730s. This was the period when most of the artillery defences and [[bastion]]s on the north and west sides of the castle were built. These were designed by military engineer Captain [[John Lambertus Romer|John Romer]], and built by the architect [[William Adam (architect)|William Adam]]. They include the Argyle Battery, Mills Mount Battery, the Low Defences and the Western Defences.<ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland|num=LB28010|desc=Edinburgh Castle, Batteries, including Argyle, Dury's, Forewall, Half-Moon, and Western Defences|cat=A|access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>

The last military action at the castle took place during the [[Jacobite Rising of 1745|second Jacobite rising]] of 1745. The Jacobite army, under [[Charles Edward Stuart]] ("Bonnie Prince Charlie"), captured Edinburgh without a fight in September 1745, but the castle remained in the hands of its ageing Deputy Governor, General [[George Preston (Jacobite)|George Preston]], who refused to surrender.<ref>Gibson, p. 30.</ref> After their victory over the government army at [[Battle of Prestonpans|Prestonpans]] on 21 September, the Jacobites attempted to blockade the castle. Preston's response was to bombard Jacobite positions within the town. After several buildings had been demolished and four people killed, Charles called off the blockade.<ref>Gibson, pp. 38–42.</ref><ref>Gray, p. 72.</ref> The Jacobites themselves had no heavy guns with which to respond, and by November they had marched into England, leaving Edinburgh to the castle garrison.<ref>Gibson, p. 56.</ref>

Over the next century, the castle vaults were used to hold prisoners of war during several conflicts, including the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763), the [[American War of Independence]] (1775–1783) and the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815).<ref>Tabraham (2004), pp. 25–35.</ref> During this time, several new buildings were erected within the castle, including powder magazines, stores, the Governor's House (1742),<ref>{{cite book|title=DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: Europe|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Ltd|page=84|year=2010|isbn=9781405353045}}</ref> and the New Barracks (1796–1799).<ref>MacIver 1993, p. 100.</ref>

===19th century to the present===

[[File:George IV at Edinburgh Castle 1822.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Drawing of the castle surrounded by crowds|King George IV waves from the battlements of the Half Moon Battery in 1822, drawn by James Skene]]

A mass prison break in 1811, in which 49 prisoners of war escaped via a hole in the south wall, persuaded the authorities that the castle vaults were no longer suitable as a prison. This use ceased in 1814<ref>Tabraham (2004), pp. 59–63.</ref> and the castle began gradually to assume a different role as a national monument. In 1818, [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]] was given permission to search the castle for the [[Crown of Scotland]], believed lost after the union of Scotland and England in 1707. Breaking into a sealed room, now known as the Crown Room, and unlocking a chest within, he rediscovered the [[Honours of Scotland]], which were then put on public display with an entry charge of one [[shilling]].<ref name=Tabraham60>Tabraham (2008), p. 60.</ref> In 1822, King [[George IV]] made a [[Visit of King George IV to Scotland|visit to Edinburgh]], becoming the first reigning monarch to visit the castle since Charles II in 1651. In 1829, the cannon Mons Meg was returned from the Tower of London, where it had been taken as part of the process of disarming Scotland after "the '45", and the palace began to be opened up to visitors during the 1830s.<ref name=MacIvor107>MacIvor (1993), p. 107.</ref> St Margaret's Chapel was "rediscovered" in 1845, having been used as a store for many years.<ref name=Tabraham60/> Works in the 1880s, funded by the Edinburgh publisher William Nelson and carried out by [[Hippolyte Blanc]], saw the Argyle Tower built over the Portcullis Gate and the Great Hall restored after years of use as a barracks.<ref name=BoS85-86/> A new Gatehouse was built in 1888. During the 19th century, several schemes were put forward for rebuilding the whole castle as a [[Scottish baronial style]] ''château''. Work began in 1858, but was soon abandoned, and only the hospital building was eventually remodelled in 1897.<ref name=BoS85-86/> Following the death of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] in 1861, the architect [[David Bryce]] put forward a proposal for a {{convert|50|m|ft|adj=on}} keep as a memorial, but [[Queen Victoria]] objected and the scheme was not pursued.<ref>Devine, p. 293.</ref>

[[File:Soldiers of the Castle garrison, c.1845.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Soldiers of the [[92nd Regiment of Foot]] (later [[Gordon Highlanders]]) while on garrison duty at the castle in 1845.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-10-28|title=2nd Bn, The Gordon Highlanders: Service|url=http://www.regiments.org/deploy/uk/reg-inf/092-1.htm |access-date=2021-09-16|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071028081336/http://www.regiments.org/deploy/uk/reg-inf/092-1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2007}}</ref>]]
[[File:Edinburgh Castle by Thomas Keith.jpg|left|thumb|[https://library.nga.gov/permalink/01NGA_INST/1p5jkvq/alma994204278304896 Edinburgh Castle, waxed-paper negative by Thomas Keith, c. 1855]. Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington DC]]
In 1905, responsibility for the castle was transferred from the [[War Office]] to the [[Office of Works]],<ref>Tabraham (2008), p. 61.</ref> although the garrison remained until 1923, when the troops moved to [[Redford Barracks]] in south-west Edinburgh. The castle was again used as a prison during the First World War, when "[[Red Clydeside]]r" [[David Kirkwood]] was confined in the military prison block, and during the Second World War, when downed German ''Luftwaffe'' pilots were captured.<ref>Tabraham (2004), p. 63.</ref> The position of [[List of Governors of Edinburgh Castle|Governor of Edinburgh Castle]], vacant since 1876, was revived in 1935 as an honorary title for the [[General Officer Commanding]] in Scotland, the first holder being Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald Cameron of Lochiel.<ref>Gray, p. 79.</ref> The castle passed into the care of [[Historic Scotland]] when it was established in 1991, and was designated a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]] in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.historic-scotland.gov.uk/pls/htmldb/ESCHEDULE.P_ESCHEDULE_DOWNLOADFILE?p_file=90130 |title=Entry in the Schedule of Monuments: The Monument known as Edinburgh Castle |publisher=Historic Scotland |year=1993 |access-date=19 March 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110814075809/http://data.historic-scotland.gov.uk/pls/htmldb/ESCHEDULE.P_ESCHEDULE_DOWNLOADFILE?p_file=90130 |archive-date=14 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The buildings and structures of the castle are further protected by 24 separate [[listed building|listings]], including 13 at [[Category A listed|category A]], the highest level of protection for a historic building in Scotland,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.historic-scotland.gov.uk/pls/htmldb/f?p=2200:12:0::NO:RP:KEY,COU,PB,CAT,DF,DT:Edinburgh%20Castle%2C230%2C%2CA%2C%2C |title=Listed buildings in Edinburgh Castle |publisher=Historic Scotland |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150604194622/http://data.historic-scotland.gov.uk/pls/htmldb/f?p=2200%3A12%3A0%3A%3ANO%3ARP%3AKEY%2CCOU%2CPB%2CCAT%2CDF%2CDT%3AEdinburgh%20Castle%2C230%2C%2CA%2C%2C |archive-date=4 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and special care was taken when installing 31&nbsp;kW [[solar panel]]s on the roof of the War Memorial, obscured by its parapet.<ref>{{cite web |title=AES Solar installs PV at Edinburgh Castle |url=https://renews.biz/77591/aes-solar-installs-pv-at-edinburgh-castle/ |website=reNEWS – Renewable Energy News |date=3 May 2022}}</ref> The [[Old Town, Edinburgh|Old]] and [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Towns of Edinburgh]], a [[World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom|World Heritage Site]] inscribed by [[UNESCO]] in 1995, is described as "dominated by a medieval fortress".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728 |title=Old and New Towns of Edinburgh |publisher=UNESCO |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130120141829/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>