Editing Ecbatana (section)

== History ==

=== Median kingdom (678–550 BC) ===
According to [[Herodotus]], Ecbatana was chosen as the [[Medes]]' capital in 678 BC by [[Deioces]], the first ruler of the Medes. Herodotus said that it had seven walls.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=80–84}} Deioces's intention was to build a palace worthy of the dignity of a king.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lendering |first=Jona |date=1996 |title=Ecbatana (Hamadan) |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/place/ecbatana-hamadan/ |url-status=}}</ref> After choosing Ecbatana as his capital, Deioces decided to build a huge and strong palace in the form of seven nested castles. Herodotus says that each of them was in the color of a planet.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-06-05 |title=Seven Colored Walls of Ecbatana |url=https://forums.civfanatics.com/resources/seven-colored-walls-of-ecbatana.22841/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=CivFanatics Forums |language=en-US}}</ref> The royal palace and the treasury were located inside the seventh castle. The outer perimeter of the castle wall was almost the size of the city wall of Athens.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cantos Project - Herodotus: Deioces and Ecbatana |url=https://ezrapoundcantos.org/index.php/a-draft-of-xvi-cantos-overview/canto-iv/iv-sources/141-ecbatana |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=ezrapoundcantos.org}}</ref> 
[[File:Reza Abbasi Museum (15).jpg|thumb|Golden [[rhyton]] of ram's head, discovered in Ecbatana, kept at the [[Reza Abbasi Museum]]]]
The royal palace, which was built in the last inner fort, had hundreds of rooms and people also built their houses outside of these forts, next to the palace.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecbatana (Hamadan) - Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/place/ecbatana-hamadan/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=www.livius.org}}</ref> Some archaeologists have also attributed its construction to [[Phraortes]], the second king of the Medes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iran Chamber Society: Ecbatana |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/geography/articles/ecbatana.php |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=www.iranchamber.com}}</ref> Other old legends attribute the origin of Ecbatana to the legendary [[Semiramis]] or [[Jamshid]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Ecbatana [Biblical Achmetha] (Modern Hamadan) in Iran |url=https://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ecbatana_Achmetha_Hamadan.html |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=ancientneareast.tripod.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hamadan, IRAN's ancient Capital city of Ecbatana - Avicenna, Ibn Sina Persia's Great Mathematician, Philosopher, Physician and Scientist, Hamadan - IRAN - Ecbatana - Persian Capital |url=http://www.farsinet.com/hamadan/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=www.farsinet.com}}</ref> Ecbatana has also been mentioned by other Greek historians such as [[Polybius]], [[Ctesias]], [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], and [[Xenophon]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rawlinson |first=H. C. |date=1840 |title=Memoir on the Site of the Atropatenian Ecbatana |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1797839 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London |volume=10 |pages=65–158 |doi=10.2307/1797839 |jstor=1797839 |issn=0266-6235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tuplin |first=Christopher |title=Xenophon and Achaemenid courts: a survey of evidence |url=https://www.academia.edu/4230957 |journal=B.Jacobs & R.Rollinger (Edd.), der Achämenidenhof (Wiesbaden 2010), 189-230.}}</ref> The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] do not seem to mention Ecbatana, and it is likely they never penetrated east of the [[Alvand]] despite two centuries of involvement in Median areas of the central [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Stuart C. |date=1986 |title=Media and Secondary State Formation in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros: An Anthropological Approach to an Assyriological Problem |journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=107–119 |doi=10.2307/1359955 |jstor=1359955 |s2cid=156425357 }}</ref>

=== Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) ===
[[File:Achaemenid gold rhyton in the shape of a lion, from Ecbatana, ca. 550-330 BC, Exhibition- 'Iran, Cradle of Civilizations', Archaeological Museum of Alicante (MARQ), Spain - 48244034452.jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] golden [[rhyton]] in the shape of a lion, from Ecbatana, kept at the [[National Museum of Iran]]]]
In 550 BC, [[Cyrus the Great]] defeated [[Astyages]] and conquered Ecbatana, forming the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref name="Foundation">{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Although Ecbatana lost its former importance, it was located on the royal road, where it connected [[Persepolis]] to [[Sardis]], and situated at the foot of [[Alvand|Mount Alvand]]. So it was settled by the Achaemenid rulers. The city became the summer capital and a treasury of the Achaemenids. As mentioned in several sources, the city was also used as a royal archive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jameson |first1=Michael H. |last2=Frye |first2=Richard N. |date=1964 |title=The Heritage of Persia |journal=The Classical World |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=155 |doi=10.2307/4345268 |jstor=4345268}}</ref>

In ancient times, Ecbatana was renowned for its wealth and splendid architecture.<ref>Pseudo-Aristotle, ''De mundo''</ref> In 330 BC when [[Darius III]] faced [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], Ecbatana was in ruins, but Darius III ordered the construction of hundreds of hiding places in the middle of the city for treasures and assets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-14 |title=گنج گمشده داریوش سوم؟کجاست؟ |url=https://felezyabnano.com/%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%AC-%DA%AF%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B4-%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%9F%DA%A9%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%9F/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=فلزیاب نانوبازرگان |language=fa-IR}}</ref> Some weeks before Darius III was killed in a coup in July 330 BC, Ecbatana was conquered, and Persepolis destroyed by Alexander. These events marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire.

=== Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC) ===
[[File:Coin of Demetrius I Soter, minted in Ecbatana.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Demetrius I Soter|Demetrius I]], minted and discovered in Ecbatana.|left]]
In 330&nbsp;BC, [[Alexander the Great]] captured the treasury of Ecbatana, and he looted all the gold and silver decorations of the palace.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005-12-02 |title=Parthian site may have wrongly been identified as Ecbatana |url=https://en.mehrnews.com/news/14129/Parthian-site-may-have-wrongly-been-identified-as-Ecbatana |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=Mehr News Agency |language=en}}</ref> Ecbatana was the site of the assassination of the [[Macedon]]ian general [[Parmenion]] by Alexander's order.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=80–84}}

Later, in 305 BC, the city was ruled by [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]]. The [[Battle of Ecbatana]] was fought in 129 BC between the [[Seleucids]] led by [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] led by [[Phraates II]], and marked the final attempt on the part of the Seleucids to regain their power in eastern Iran against the Parthians. After their defeat, the territory of the Seleucids was limited to the area of modern-day [[Syria]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Ecbatana {{!}} Map and Timeline |url=https://history-maps.com/en/story/Seleucid-Empire/event/Battle-of-Ecbatana |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=history-maps.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-05 |title=What is Battle of Ecbatana? Bissoy Answers |url=https://ans.bissoy.com/qa/2257670 |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=ans.bissoy.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Ecbatana 129 BC |url=https://www.romanarmytalk.com/rat/showthread.php?tid=23103 |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=www.romanarmytalk.com}}</ref>

=== Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224) ===
[[File:Coin of Mithridates II of Parthia with a horse depicted on reverse, Ecbatana mint.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]] with a horse depicted on reverse, minted and discovered in Ecbatana.|left]]
Ecbatana later became the summer capital of the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunson |first1=Matthew |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Rome |date=2012 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-8217-9 |page=183 }}</ref> and their main mint, producing [[drachm]]s, [[Tetradrachm#:~:text=The tetradrachm (Greek: τετράδραχμον,,borders of the Greek World.|tetradrachms]], and assorted [[bronze]] denominations.<ref name="Foundation"/>

The wealth and importance of the city during [[classical antiquity]] are attributed to its location, a crucial crossroads that made it a staging post on the main east–west highway called High-Road.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Sulimani |first=Iris |url=https://archive.org/details/diodorusmythisto00suli |title=Diodorus' Mythistory and the Pagan Mission: Historiography and Culture-heroes in the First Pentad of the Bibliotheke |publisher=BRILL |year=2011 |isbn=9789004194069 |location=Leiden |page=[https://archive.org/details/diodorusmythisto00suli/page/n220 204] |url-access=limited}}</ref> There was a reputation for horses and wheat in the area (Polybius, 5.44.1).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Polybius |title=Histories |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/5*.html |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |at=5.44}}</ref> Graphite, gold, platinum, antimony, iron, and various minerals are found there; however, the classics mention oil seeps and flares, and there is no evidence of exploitation of these resources.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plutarch |title=Alexander |at=35.1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pliny |title=Naturalis Historia |at=31.17}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

In 130 BC, with the intention of restoring the Seleucid power to Iran, [[Antiochus VII Sidetes|Antiochus VII]] stopped in Ecbatana for a short period of time,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-25 |title=Parthian Mints |url=https://www.parthia.com/parthia_mints.htm |website=Parthia}}</ref> just as [[Tigranes the Great]], who stayed there in the following year to attack [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |date=2013-08-18 |title=Tigranes the Great, 140–55 BC |url=https://www.peopleofar.com/2013/08/19/tigranes-the-great/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=PeopleOfAr |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tigranes the Great Timeline |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/Tigranes_the_Great/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=www.worldhistory.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) ===
Ecbatana remained loyal to the Parthians until AD 226, when [[Ardashir I]] defeated [[Artabanus IV of Parthia|Artabanus IV]] and conquered Ecbatana from the north, alongside [[Atropatene]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} There is conflicting evidence as to whether Ecbatana was used as the summer capital for Sasanians or not. According to [[Ibn al-Faqih]], buildings were built between [[Ctesiphon]] (The Sassanid capital) and Mount Alvand, but not beyond that.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crane |first=Mary |date=1937 |title=The Historical Documents |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44235962 |journal=Bulletin of the American Institute for Iranian Art and Archaeology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=84–91 |jstor=44235962 |issn=2573-6167}}</ref>

=== Destruction ===
After the [[battle of Nahavand]] in 642 AD,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195065121.001.0001 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-506512-1 }}{{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> Ecbatana fell to the Muslims, and around 1220, the city was completely destroyed by the [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol invasion]]. Ecbatana was sacked in 1386 by [[Timur]], and the population was slaughtered as a result.

===Historical descriptions===

==== Herodotus's description ====
[[File:Khorsabad_Salle_II_bas_relief_22_attaque_d'une_cité_mède.jpg|right|thumb|[[Assyria|Assyrian-era]] relief of a Median city built with walls forming concentric circles on a hill, similarly to how Greek authors later described Ecbatana.]]
The Greeks thought Ecbatana to be the capital of the [[Medes|Median empire]] and credited its foundation to [[Deioces]] (the ''Daiukku'' of the [[cuneiform]] inscriptions). It is alleged that he surrounded his palace in Ecbatana with seven concentric walls of different colors.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bienkowski |first1=Piotr |title=Dictionary of the Ancient Near East |last2=Millard |first2=Alan |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8122-2115-2 |location=Philadelphia, PA |page=99 |language=en}}</ref> There are some indications that the walls of this complex might be an ancient [[ziggurat]], which was a type of temple tower with multiple stories that were common in the [[ancient Near East]].<ref name="Lendering 1996">{{Cite web |last=Lendering |first=Jona |date=1996 |title=Ecbatana (Hamadan) |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/place/ecbatana-hamadan/}}</ref>

In the 5th century BC, [[Herodotus]] wrote of Ecbatana:<blockquote>"The Medes built the city now called Ecbatana, the walls of which are of great size and strength, rising in circles one within the other. The plan of the place is, that each of the walls should out-top the one beyond it by the battlements. The nature of the ground, which is a gentle hill, favors this arrangements in some degree but it is mainly effected by art. The number of the circles is seven, the royal palace and the treasuries standing within the last. The circuit of the outer wall is very nearly the same with that of [[Athens]]. On this wall the battlements are white, of the next black, of the third scarlet, of the fourth blue, the fifth orange; all these colors with paint. The last two have their battlements coated respectively with silver and gold. All these fortifications [[Deioces]] had caused to be raised for himself and his own palace."</blockquote>
[[File:Raguel's Reception of Tobias at Ecbatana MET DP801095.jpg|thumb|Raquel's reception of Tobias at Ecbatana]]
Herodotus's description is corroborated in part by stone reliefs from the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], depicting Median citadels ringed by concentric walls. Other sources attest to the historical importance of Ecbatana based on the terms used by ancient authors to describe it such as ''Caput Mediae'' (capital of Media), the Royal Seat, and the Great City.<ref name=":02" /> It is said that Alexander the Great deposited the treasures he took from [[Persepolis]] and [[Pasargadae]] and that one of the last acts of his life was to visit the city.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Balfour |first=Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283118 |title=The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia |publisher=Bernard Quartitch |year=1885 |location=London |page=1027}}</ref>

The citadel of Ecbatana is also mentioned in the [[Bible]] in [[Ezra 6]]:2, in the time of [[Darius I]], as part of the national archives.

==== Description in the Chronicle of Nabonidus ====
The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]], an ancient Babylonian text from the 5th century BC, describes how [[Astyages]], the last Median king, was dethroned and how [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]] conquered Ecbatana.<blockquote>"King [[Astyages]] called up his troops and marched against [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]], king of [[Anshan (Persia)|Anšan]] [''i.e., Persis''], in order to meet him in battle. The army of Astyages revolted against him and delivered him in fetters to Cyrus. Cyrus marched against the country of Ecbatana; the royal residence he seized; silver, gold, other valuables of the country Ecbatana he took as booty and brought to Anšan."<ref name="Lendering 1996"/></blockquote>

==== Polybius of Megalopolis's description ====
[[File:Andrea_Vaccaro_-_Raguel's_Blessing_of_her_Daughter_Sarah_before_Leaving_Ecbatana_with_Tobias_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|Raguel's Blessing of her Daughter Sarah before Leaving Ecbatana with Tobias, by [[Andrea Vaccaro]]]]
In the 2nd century BC, [[Polybius]] writes about Ecbatana. He mentions that the wealth and magnificence of its buildings make it stand out among all other cities. It has no walls but an artificial citadel with amazing fortifications. Underneath this is the palace which is about seven stories in circumference, and its magnificence shows the wealth of its founders. During his time, no parts of the woodwork were left exposed. There were silver or gold-plated rafters, compartments in the ceiling, and columns in the porticos and colonnades, and silver tiles were used throughout the structure. In the invasion by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], most precious metals were stripped, while the remainder were stripped during [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]'s and [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]]'s reigns. However, Antiochus found that the columns of the temple of Aene were still gilded and that several silver tiles were piled up around the temple along with some gold bricks (Polybius, 10.27).<ref>{{Cite web |last= |last2= |title=Polybius Histories |script-title= |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/10*.html#27 |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |edition=Book 10-27}}</ref>