Editing Eastern philosophy (section)

==Indian philosophy==
{{Main|Indian philosophy}}
{{Further|Hinduism|Hindu philosophy|Indonesian philosophy}}
[[File:திருவள்ளுவர் கலைப் படைப்பு.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Valluvar]], the Tamil philosopher of the post-[[Sangam era]]]]
[[Indian philosophy]] refers to [[Ancient India|ancient]] philosophical traditions ({{langx|sa|{{IAST|dárśana}}}}; 'world views', 'teachings')<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=darzana&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |title=Spoken Sanskrit, ''darzana'' |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106200706/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=darzana&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. [[Hinduism]] may have roots dating back to the times of the [[Indus Valley civilization]].<ref>Larson, Gerald James (1995) ''India's Agony over religion '' SUNY Press {{ISBN|0-7914-2412-X}}. "There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder" per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. p. 27"</ref><ref>Joel Diederik Beversluis (2000) In: ''Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality'', New World Library: Novato, CA {{ISBN|1-57731-121-3}} Originating on the Indian sub-continent, Jainism is one of the oldest religion of its homeland and indeed the world, having pre-historic origins before 3000 BC and the propagation of Indo-Aryan culture.... p. 81</ref><ref>Jainism by Mrs. [[Natalya Romanovna Guseva|N.R. Guseva]] p. 44</ref> The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the [[Common Era]] and the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref>Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, p. 316</ref> These Hindu schools developed what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" merging orthodox [[Brahmanical]] and unorthodox elements from Buddhism and [[Jainism]].<ref>Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge</ref> Hindu thought also spread east to the Indonesian [[Srivijaya empire]] and the Cambodian [[Khmer Empire]]. These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label [[Hinduism]]. Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life,{{refn|group=note|name="definition"|Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" ({{sfn|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in {{sfnlink|Flood|2008|pp=1–17}}.}} in [[South Asia]]. It includes [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]], and [[Shaktism]]{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}} among numerous [[Hindu denominations|other traditions]], and a wide spectrum of [[Dharmaśāstra|laws and prescriptions]] of "daily morality" based on [[karma]], [[dharma]], and societal norms. Hinduism is a categorization of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of beliefs.{{sfn|Georgis|2010|p=62}} Hinduism, with about one billion followers<ref>{{cite web|title=The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism|url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx|work=A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010|publisher=The pew foundation|access-date=31 March 2013|date=2012-12-18|archive-date=6 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506104814/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> is the [[Major religious groups|world's third-largest religion]], after [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. Hinduism has been called the "[[oldest religion]]" in the world and is traditionally called ''[[Sanātanī|{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}]]'', "the eternal [[dharma|law]]" or the "eternal way";{{sfn|Bowker|2000}}{{sfn|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=5}} beyond human origins.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=5}} Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard|{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."}} or synthesis{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=193}}{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"|{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320–467 CE)."}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=193}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{refn|group=note| Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] of the late [[Vedic period]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans ({{harvnb|Samuel|2010|pp=48–53}}), but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]],{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=3}}{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=xviii}} the [[Sramana]] or renouncer traditions of [[Maurya Empire|north-east India]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}}} and no single founder.{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}}

Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the [[Upanishads]] of the [[Vedic period#Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)|later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE)]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}. Important Indian philosophical concepts include [[dharma]], [[karma]], [[samsara]], [[moksha]], and [[ahimsa]]. Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning ([[pramana]]) and logic and investigated topics such as [[Ontology]] ([[metaphysics]], [[Brahman]]-[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]], [[Sunyata]]-[[Anatta]]), reliable means of knowledge ([[epistemology]], [[Pramana]]s), value system ([[axiology]]) and other topics.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roy W. Perrett|title=Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8153-3608-2|access-date=2 March 2018|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144429/https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen H Phillips|title=Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ij4yOAP_6fcC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-51898-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USBtAAAAMAAJ |year=1982|publisher=Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University |isbn=9789993624318}};<br />{{cite book|author1=Purusottama Bilimoria|author2=Joseph Prabhu|author3=Renuka M. Sharma|title=Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g78Cw4xQmsMC |year=2007|publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-3301-3 }}</ref> Indian philosophy also covered topics such as political philosophy as seen in the [[Arthashastra]] c. 4th century BCE and the philosophy of love as seen in the [[Kama Sutra]]. The [[Tirukkural|Kural literature]] of the post-[[Sangam period]] between c. 1st century BCE and 5th century CE, written by the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poet-philosopher [[Valluvar]], is believed by many scholars to be based on [[Jain]]{{sfn|Mohan Lal|1992|pp=4333–4334}}{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=156–171}}{{sfn|Sundaram, 1990|pp=xiii–xvii, Appendix note on verse 1103}} or [[Hindu]] philosophies.{{sfn|Kaushik Roy|2012|pp=152–154, context: 144–154 (Chapter: Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia)}}{{sfn|Swamiji Iraianban|1997|p=13}}{{sfn|Johnson, 2009}}{{sfn|Pillai, 2015|p=75}}

Later developments include the development of [[Tantra]] and Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly disappeared from India after the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]], surviving in the Himalayan regions and south India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Randall Collins|title=he Sociology of Philosophies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC|year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02977-4|pages=184–185|access-date=2 March 2018|archive-date=11 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111053959/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC|url-status=live}}</ref> The early modern period saw the flourishing of [[Navya-Nyāya]] (the 'new reason') under philosophers such as [[Raghunatha Siromani]] (c. 1460–1540) who founded the tradition, [[Jayarama Pancanana]], [[Mahadeva Punatamakara]] and [[Yashovijaya]] (who formulated a Jain response).<ref>Ganeri, Jonardon. ''The Lost Age of Reason Philosophy in Early Modern India 1450–1700'', Oxford U. press.</ref>

===Orthodox schools===
The principal Indian philosophical schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox – [[Āstika and nāstika|āstika or nāstika]] – depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the [[Vedas]] are a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]; and whether the school believes in afterlife and [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]].<ref>John Bowker, ''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', p. 259</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger |title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-936008-6 |page=46 |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144429/https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are six major schools of orthodox Indian [[Hindu philosophy]]—[[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]] and [[Vedanta]], and five major heterodox schools—[[Jainism|Jain]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Ajivika]], [[Ajñana]], and [[Cārvāka]]. However, there are other methods of classification; [[Vidyaranya]] for instance identifies sixteen schools of Hindu Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the [[Shaivism|Śaiva]] and [[Raseśvara]] traditions.<ref name="cowell">Cowell, E.B.; Gough, A.E. (1882). Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. {{ISBN|81-7030-875-5}}, p. xii.</ref><ref name="nicholson">Nicholson, pp. 158–162.</ref>

Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive [[Epistemology|epistemological]] literature called ''[[Pramana]]-sastras''.<ref name=kp>Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0779-0}}, pp. 25–26</ref><ref name=pbil>[[Purushottama Bilimoria|P Bilimoria]] (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy – Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, {{ISBN|978-94-010-5107-1}}, pp. 137–154</ref>

In [[History of Hinduism|Hindu history]], the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the [[Gupta period]] "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mīmāṃsā, it became obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta ([[Dvaita]] "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as ''Navya Nyaya'' "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

====Sāmkhya and Yoga====
[[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]] is a [[Mind–body dualism|dualist]] philosophical tradition based on the [[Samkhyakarika]] (c. 320–540 CE),<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0503-3}}, pp. 146–147</ref> while the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga school]] was a closely related tradition emphasizing [[Dhyana in Hinduism|meditation]] and [[Kaivalya|liberation]] whose major text is the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga sutras]] (c. 400 CE).<ref>Maas, Philipp A. (2006). ''Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert''. Aachen: Shaker. {{ISBN|3-8322-4987-7}}.</ref> Elements of proto-Samkhya ideas can, however, be traced back to the period of the early [[Upanishads]].<ref>GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-60441-1}}, pp. 4–5</ref> One of the main differences between the two closely related schools was that Yoga allowed for the existence of a God, while most [[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]] thinkers criticized this idea.<ref>Roy Perrett (2007), Samkhya-Yoga Ethics, Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (Editors: Purusottama Bilimoria et al), Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3301-3}}, p. 151</ref>

Sāmkhya [[epistemology]] accepts three of six [[pramana]]s (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge; ''pratyakṣa'' ([[perception]]), ''anumāṇa'' ([[inference]]) and ''śabda'' (word/testimony of reliable sources).<ref name="ReferenceA">John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3067-5}}, p. 238</ref> The school developed a complex theoretical exposition of the evolution of [[Purusha|consciousness]] and [[Prakṛti|matter]]. Sāmkhya sources argue that the universe consists of two realities, [[Purusha|puruṣa]] ([[consciousness]]) and [[prakṛti]] ([[matter]]).

As shown by the ''[[Samkhyapravachana Sutra|Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra]]'' (c. 14th century CE), Sāmkhya continued to develop throughout the medieval period.

====Nyāya====
[[Nyaya|The Nyāya]] school of [[epistemology]] explores [[Pramāṇa|sources of knowledge]] (''Pramāṇa'') and is based on the ''[[Nyāya Sūtras]]'' (circa 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE).<ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, p. 129</ref> [[Nyaya|Nyāya]] holds that human suffering arises out of ignorance and liberation arises through correct knowledge. Therefore, they sought to investigate the sources of correct knowledge or epistemology.

[[Nyaya|Nyāya]] traditionally accepts four ''[[Pramana]]s'' as reliable means of gaining knowledge – ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāṇa'' (inference), ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy) and ''Śabda'' (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> [[Nyaya|Nyāya]] also traditionally defended a form of philosophical [[Realism (philosophical)|realism]].<ref>Oliver Leaman (2006), Nyaya, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-86253-0}}, pp. 405–407</ref>

The ''[[Nyāya Sūtras]]'' was a very influential text in Indian philosophy, laying the foundations for classical Indian epistemological debates between the different philosophical schools. It includes, for example, the classic Hindu rejoinders against Buddhist not-self ([[anatta]]) arguments.<ref>P Bilimoria and JN Mohanty (2003), Relativism, Suffering and Beyond, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-566207-8}}, pp. i–ix with Introduction and Chapter 3</ref> The work also famously argues against a creator God ([[Ishvara]]),<ref>John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, p. 150</ref> a debate which became central to Hinduism in the medieval period.

====Vaiśeṣika====
[[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]] is a naturalist school of [[atomism]], which accepts only two sources of knowledge, perception, and inference.<ref>DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, p. 172</ref> This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to ''paramāṇu'' ([[atom]]s), which are indestructible (''anitya''), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called "small" (''aṇu''). Whatever we experience is a composite of these atoms.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto Analytical philosophy in early modern India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318135737/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto |date=18 March 2019 }} J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

Vaiśeṣika organized all objects of experience into what they called ''padārtha''s (literally: 'the meaning of a word') which included six categories; ''dravya'' (substance), ''guṇa'' (quality), ''karma'' (activity), ''sāmānya'' (generality), ''viśeṣa'' (particularity) and ''samavāya'' (inherence). Later ''Vaiśeṣika''s (''Śrīdhara'' and Udayana and ''Śivāditya'') added one more category ''[[abhava]]'' (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as ''artha'' (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as ''budhyapekṣam'' (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.<ref>[[Vaisheshika#CITEREFRadhakrishnan2006|Radhakrishnan 2006]], pp. 183–186</ref>

====Mīmāṃsā====
[[Mīmāṃsā]] is a school of ritual [[orthopraxy]] and is known for its [[Hermeneutics|hermeneutical]] study and interpretation of the [[Vedas]].<ref name="Oliver Leaman 2006">Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-86253-0}}, p. 503</ref> For this tradition, the study of ''[[dharma]]'' as ritual and social duty was paramount. They also held that the Vedas were "eternal, authorless, [and] infallible" and that Vedic injunctions and [[mantra]]s in rituals are prescriptive actions of primary importance.<ref name="Oliver Leaman 2006"/> Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of [[philology]] and the [[philosophy of language]] which influenced other Indian schools.<ref>Peter M. Scharf, ''The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy'' (1996), Chapter 3</ref> They primarily held that the purpose of language was to correctly ''prescribe'' proper actions, rituals, and correct [[dharma]] (duty or virtue).<ref>Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'' (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-86253-0}}, pp. 443–445</ref> Mīmāṃsā is also mainly atheistic, holding that the evidence for the existence of God is insufficient and that the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the names, mantras and their power.<ref>[[Harold Coward|Coward, Harold]] (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C ''The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |date=6 December 2022 }}. p. 114. {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7336-8}}.</ref>

A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is the [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mīmāṃsā Sūtra]] of [[Jaimini]] and major Mīmāṃsā scholars include [[Prabhākara]] (c. 7th century) and [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] roughly 700). The Mīmāṃsā school strongly influenced [[Vedanta|Vedānta]], which was also known as ''Uttara-Mīmāṃsā''; however, while Mīmāṃsā emphasized ''karmakāṇḍa'', or the study of ritual actions, using the four early [[Vedas]], the Vedānta schools emphasized ''jñanakāṇḍa'', the study of knowledge, using the later parts of Vedas like the [[Upaniṣads]].<ref name="Oliver Leaman 2006"/>

====Vedānta====
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x250px|[[Adi Shankara]] (8th century CE) the main exponent of [[Advaita]] Vedānta]]
[[Vedānta]] (meaning "end of the [[Vedas]]") or ''Uttara-Mīmāṃsā'', are a group of traditions which focus on the philosophical issues found in the [[Prasthanatrayi]] (the three sources), which are the ''[[Principal Upanishads]]'', the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]].''<ref>[[Vedanta#CITEREFRanganathan|Ranganathan]]; [[Vedanta#CITEREFHiriyanna1948|Hiriyanna 1948]], pp. 19, 21–25, 150–152; [[Vedanta#CITEREFGrimes1990|Grimes 1990]], pp. 6–7</ref> [[Vedānta]] sees the Vedas, particularly the [[Upanishads]], as a reliable source of knowledge.

The central concern for these schools is the nature of and the relationship between ''[[Brahman]]'' (ultimate reality, universal consciousness), ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'' (individual soul) and ''[[Prakriti]]'' (empirical world).

The sub-traditions of [[Vedānta]] include [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] (non-dualism), [[Vishishtadvaita]] (qualified non-dualism), [[Dvaita]] (dualism), and [[Bhedabheda]] (difference and non-difference).<ref>[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03%E2%80%93DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Due to the popularity of the [[bhakti movement]], [[Vedānta]] came to be the dominant current of [[Hinduism]] in the post-medieval period.

====Other====
While the classical enumeration of Indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools, there are other schools that are sometimes seen as orthodox. These include:<ref name="cowell"/>
* [[Pasupata|Paśupata]], an [[Asceticism|ascetic]] school of Shaivism founded by [[Lakulisha]] (≈2nd century CE).
* [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Śaiva Siddhānta]], a school of dualistic [[Shaivism]] which was strongly influenced by Samkhya.
* [[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijña]] (recognition) school of [[Utpaladeva]] (10th century) and [[Abhinavagupta]] (975–1025 CE), a form of non-dual Shaiva [[tantra]].
* [[Raseśvara]], the mercurial school
* [[Pāṇini]] Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of [[Sphoṭa]])

===Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools===
{{Main|Śramaṇa}}
The nāstika or heterodox schools are associated with the non-Vedic [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇic]] traditions that existed in India since before the 6th century BCE.<ref name="reginaldray247">Reginald Ray (1999), Buddhist Saints in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-513483-4}}, pp. 237–240, 247–249</ref> The [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]] gave rise to a diverse range of non-Vedic ideas, ranging from accepting or denying the concepts of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]], atomism, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, extreme asceticism, strict [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and [[vegetarianism]].<ref>Padmanabh S Jaini (2001), Collected papers on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1776-0}}, pp. 57–77</ref> Notable philosophies that arose from [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇic]] movement were [[Jainism]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]], [[Cārvāka]], [[Ajñana]], and [[Ājīvika]].<ref>AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1204-8}}, pp. 94–103</ref>

====Jain philosophy====
[[Jain philosophy]] deals extensively with the problems of [[metaphysics]], [[reality]], [[cosmology]], [[ontology]], [[epistemology]], and [[divinity]]. [[Jainism]] is essentially a [[transtheistic]] religion of ancient India.<ref>{{cite book | last =Zimmer | first =Heinrich | editor =Joseph Campbell | title =Philosophies of India | publisher =Princeton University Press | year =1969 | location =New York | isbn =978-0-691-01758-7 }}</ref>{{rp|182}} It continues the ancient [[Sramana|{{IAST|Śramaṇa}}]] tradition, which co-existed with the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic tradition]] since ancient times.<ref>{{cite book | last =Sangave | first =Dr. Vilas A. | title =Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture | publisher =Popular Prakashan | year =2001 | location =Mumbai | isbn =978-81-7154-839-2 }}, p. 14</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Oldmeadow | first =Harry |author-link =Harry Oldmeadow | title =Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West | publisher =World Wisdom Inc | year =2007 | location =Indiana | isbn =978-1-933316-22-2 }}, p. 141</ref> The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a [[Mind–body dualism|mind-body dualism]], denial of a [[Creator god|creative]] and [[omnipotent]] God, [[Karma in Jainism|karma]], an [[Jainism and non-creationism|eternal and uncreated universe]], [[Ahimsa in Jainism|non-violence]], the theory of the [[Anekantavada|multiple facets of truth]], and morality based on [[Moksa (Jainism)|liberation]] of the [[Jīva (Jainism)|soul]]. Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of the bondage and the means to achieve liberation.<ref>{{cite book  | last =Warren  | first =Herbert  | title =Jainism  | publisher =Crest Publishing House  | year =2001  | location =Delhi  | url =http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/hwarren.doc  | isbn =978-81-242-0037-7  | access-date =2 July 2009  | archive-date =17 December 2008  | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081217001747/http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/hwarren.doc  | url-status =live  }}</ref>
It has often been described as an [[Asceticism|ascetic]] movement for its strong emphasis on self-control, austerities, and renunciation.<ref>{{cite book  | last =Brodd  | first =Jeffery  |author2=Gregory Sobolewski  | title =World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery   | publisher =Saint Mary's Press  | year =2003  | isbn =978-0-88489-725-5 }} pp. 95–96</ref> It has also been called a model of philosophical [[liberalism]] for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.<ref>{{cite book  | last =Mohanty  | first =Jitendranath   | title =Classical Indian Philosophy  | publisher =Rowman & Littlefield  | year =2000  | location =Lanham  | isbn =978-0-8476-8933-0 }}</ref> Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of the soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions, and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation.<ref>{{cite journal  | last =Carrithers  | first =Michael  | title =Naked Ascetics in Southern Digambar Jainism  | journal =Man |series=New Series  | volume =24  | issue =2  | pages =219–235  |date=June 1989  | doi =10.2307/2803303 | jstor =2803303}} p. 220</ref>

The contribution of the Jains in the development of Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like [[Ahimsa in Jainism|Ahimsa]], [[Karma in Jainism|Karma]], [[Moksa (Jainism)|Moksa]], [[Samsara (Jainism)|Samsara]], and the like are common with other [[Indian religions]] like [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] in various forms.<ref name="Zydenbos">{{cite book | last =Zydenbos | first =Robert J. | author-link =Robert J. Zydenbos | title =Jainism Today and Its Future | publisher =Manya Verlag | year =2006 | location =München | url =http://www.manyaverlag.de/jtaif.html | access-date =3 July 2009 | archive-date =9 September 2012 | archive-url =https://archive.today/20120909064758/http://www.manyaverlag.de/jtaif.html | url-status =live }}</ref> While Jainism traces its philosophy from teachings of [[Mahavira]] and other [[Tirthankara]]s, various Jain philosophers from [[Kundakunda]] and [[Umasvati]] in ancient times to [[Yashovijaya|Yasovijaya]] and [[Shrimad Rajchandra]] in recent times have contributed to Indian philosophical discourse in uniquely Jain ways.

====Cārvāka====
[[Charvaka|Cārvāka]] or Lokāyata was an [[Atheism|atheistic]] philosophy of [[Philosophical skepticism|scepticism]] and [[materialism]], who rejected the [[Vedas]] and all associated supernatural doctrines.<ref>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1607-7}}, p. 67;</ref> Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed the Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology.<ref name="page4">Cowell, E.B.; Gough, A.E. (1882). Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. {{ISBN|81-7030-875-5}}, pp. xii, 4</ref> They declared the Vedas to be incoherent rhapsodies invented by humans whose only usefulness was to provide a livelihood to priests.<ref>Original Sanskrit version: [https://archive.org/stream/Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha.by.Madhavacharya-Vidyaranya.Hindi#page/n11/mode/2up Sarva-darsana-sangraha], pp. 3–7; English version: [https://archive.org/stream/thesarvadarsanas00madhuoft#page/4/mode/2up The Charvaka System] with commentary by Madhava Acharya, Translators: Cowell and Gough (1882), pp. 5–9</ref>

Likewise, they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking the concept of [[Nirvana|liberation]], [[reincarnation]], and accumulation of [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] or demerit through karma.<ref>Bhattacharya, Ramkrishna. [http://www.carvaka4india.com/2011/08/materialism-in-india-synoptic-view.html Materialism in India: A Synoptic View] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091119/http://www.carvaka4india.com/2011/08/materialism-in-india-synoptic-view.html |date=4 March 2016 }}. Retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> They believed the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools".<ref name="page4" /> Cārvāka [[epistemology]] holds perception as the primary source of knowledge while rejecting inference which can be invalid.<ref>MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Cārvāka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13–16</ref> The primary texts of [[Charvaka|Cārvāka]], like the [[Barhaspatya sutras]] (c. 600 BCE) have been lost.<ref>[[Charvaka#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957|Radhakrishnan 1957]], pp. 227–249</ref>

====Ājīvika====
[[Ājīvika]] was founded by [[Makkhali Gosala]], it was a [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]] and a major rival of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-1-84511-625-5}}, p. 199</ref>

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Hindu Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.<ref name="Basham, A.L. 1951">Basham, A.L. (1951). History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas (2nd ed.). Chapter 1. Delhi, India: Moltilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002). {{ISBN|81-208-1204-2}}. originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.</ref> The Ājīvika school is known for its ''Niyati'' doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.<ref name="Basham, A.L. 1951"/><ref name="james22">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, p. 22</ref> Ājīvika considered the [[karma]] doctrine as a fallacy.<ref name="philtarajiv">[http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html Ajivikas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717212839/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html |date=17 July 2019 }} World Religions Project, [[University of Cumbria]], United Kingdom</ref> Ājīvikas were atheists<ref>Johannes Quack (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-964465-0}}, p. 654</ref> and rejected the authority of the [[Vedas]], but they believed that in every living being is an ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'' – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.<ref>Analayo (2004), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, {{ISBN|978-1-899579-54-9}}, pp. 207–208</ref><ref>Basham, A.L. (1951). History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas (2nd ed.). pp. 240–261, 270–273. Delhi, India: Moltilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002). {{ISBN|81-208-1204-2}}. originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.</ref>

====Ajñana====
[[Ajñana]] was a Śramaṇa school of radical Indian skepticism and a rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions;<ref>Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) (1st ed.). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. pp. 112–113.</ref> and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were seen as sophists who specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. [[Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa]] (fl. c. 800), the author of the skeptical work entitled ''Tattvopaplavasiṃha'' ("The Lion that Devours All Categories"/"The Upsetting of All Principles"), has been seen as an important Ajñana philosopher.<ref>Salunkhe, AH (2009). Astikshiromani Charvaka (in Marathi). Satara: Lokayat Prakashan. p. 36.</ref>

===Buddhist philosophies===
{{Main|Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist ethics|Tibetan Buddhism}}
[[File:Nalanda_university.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist [[Nalanda]] university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200.]]
[[File:Monks debating at Sera monastery, 2013.webm|thumb|Monks debating at [[Sera monastery]], Tibet, 2013]]

[[Buddhist philosophy]] begins with the thought of [[Gautama Buddha]] (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is preserved in the [[Buddhist texts#Texts of the Early schools|early Buddhist texts]]. It generally refers to the philosophical investigations that developed among various [[Buddhist schools]] in India and later spread throughout Asia through the [[Silk Road]]. Buddhist thought is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It is the dominant philosophical tradition in [[Tibet]] and Southeast Asian countries like [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Burma]].

[[Buddhism]]'s main concern is soteriological, defined as freedom from [[dukkha]] (unease).<ref>Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje, ''A history of Western thought: from ancient Greece to the twentieth century.'' 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, p. 25.</ref> Because [[Avidyā (Buddhism)|ignorance]] of the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering, Buddhist thinkers concerned themselves with philosophical questions related to epistemology and the use of reason.<ref name="Siderits, Mark 2007, page 6">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 6</ref> Key Buddhist concepts include the [[Four Noble Truths]], [[Anatta]] (not-self) a critique of a fixed [[personal identity]], the transience of all things ([[Anicca]]), and a certain [[The unanswered questions|skepticism about metaphysical questions]]. Buddhist thinkers in India and subsequently in [[East Asia]] have covered topics as varied as [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[ethics]], [[ontology]], [[epistemology]], [[logic]], and [[philosophy of time]].

Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed '[[Abhidharma]]'. [[Mahayana]] philosophers such as [[Nagarjuna]] and [[Vasubandhu]] developed the theories of [[Shunyata]] (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology or [[transcendental idealism]].<ref>Butler, Sean (2011) "Idealism in Yogācāra Buddhism," The Hilltop Review: Vol. 4: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/hilltopreview/vol4/iss1/6 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225022350/https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/hilltopreview/vol4/iss1/6/ |date=25 February 2021 }}</ref> The [[Dignāga]] (c. 480–540) school of [[Pramāṇa]] promoted a complex form of [[epistemology]] and [[Buddhist logic]]. This tradition contributed to what has been called an "epistemological turn" in Indian philosophy.<ref>Lawrence J. McCrea, and Parimal G. Patil. Buddhist Philosophy of Language in India: Jnanasrimitra on Exclusion. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. p 5.</ref> Through the work of [[Dharmakirti]], this tradition of Buddhist logic has become the major epistemological system used in [[Tibetan Buddhist]] philosophy and debate.<ref>Dreyfus, Georges B.J. ''Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations''. pp. 24–25.</ref>

After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the [[Tibetan Buddhist]], [[East Asian Buddhist]], and [[Theravada Buddhist]] traditions. In Tibet, the Indian tradition continued to be developed under the work of thinkers like [[Sakya Pandita]], [[Tsongkhapa]], and [[Ju Mipham]]. In [[East Asian Buddhism]], new developments were led by [[East Asian Yogācāra|East Asian Yogacara]] thinkers such as [[Paramartha]], [[Xuanzang]], and [[Wonhyo|Wŏnhyo]] and East Asian Madhyamaka thinkers like [[Jizang]]. New sinitic schools also arose, like [[Tiantai]], founded by [[Zhiyi]], [[Huayan]], defended by figures like [[Fazang]], and [[Zen]], which included philosophers like [[Guifeng Zongmi]].

====Buddhist modernism====
{{Main|Buddhist philosophy#Modern philosophy|Buddhist modernism}}
[[File:Hu Shih and D. T. Suzuki.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hu Shih]] and [[DT Suzuki]] during his visit to China in 1934]]
The modern period saw the rise of [[Buddhist modernism]] and [[Humanistic Buddhism]] under Western influences and the development of [[Buddhism in the West|Western Buddhism]] with influences from modern psychology and Western philosophy. Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] (1864–1933) and the American convert [[Henry Steel Olcott]], the Chinese modernists [[Taixu]] (1890–1947) and [[Yin Shun]] (1906–2005), Zen scholar [[D. T. Suzuki|D.T. Suzuki]], and the Tibetan [[Gendün Chöphel]] (1903–1951). Buddhist modernism refers to "forms of Buddhism that have emerged out of engagement with the dominant cultural and intellectual forces of modernity."<ref>McMahan, David L. (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. p. 6</ref> Forces which influenced modernists like [[Anagarika Dhammapala|Dhammapala]] and Yin Shun included Enlightenment values and Western science. A [[Neo-Buddhist movement]] was founded by the influential Indian [[Dalit]] leader [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in the 1950s who emphasized social and political reform.<ref>Gary Tartakov (2003). Rowena Robinson, ed. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ ''Religious Conversion in India: Modes, Motivations, and Meanings''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ |date=6 December 2022 }}. Oxford University Press. pp. 192–213. {{ISBN|978-0-19-566329-7}}.</ref>

Buddhist modernism includes various movements like [[Humanistic Buddhism]], [[Secular Buddhism]], the [[Vipassana movement]], and [[Engaged Buddhism]]. Chinese [[humanistic Buddhism]] or "Buddhism for Human Life" (Chinese: 人生佛教; pinyin: rénshēng fójiào) which was to be free of supernatural beliefs has also been an influential form of modern Buddhism in Asia.<ref name="mbingenheimer.net">Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori. [http://mbingenheimer.net/publications/bingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf ''Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140623135303/http://mbingenheimer.net/publications/bingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf |date=23 June 2014 }} (PDF). Hua-lien (Taiwan): Tzuchi University Press. pp. 141–161. {{ISBN|978-986-7625-08-3}}.</ref>

===Sikh philosophy===
{{Main|Sikh religious philosophy}}
[[Sikhism]] is an Indian religion developed by [[Guru Nanak]] (1469–1539) in the [[Punjab (region)|Punjab region]] during the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Era]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}} Their main sacred text is the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]].'' The fundamental beliefs include constant spiritual meditation of [[God in Sikhism|God]]'s name, being guided by the Guru instead of yielding to capriciousness, living a householder's life instead of monasticism, truthful action to [[dharma]] (righteousness, moral duty), equality of all human beings, and believing in God's grace.<ref>Arvind-pal Singh Mandair (2014). Pashaura Singh; Louis E. Fenech, eds. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7YwNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA302 ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'']. Oxford University Press. pp. 302–314. {{ISBN|978-0-19-100411-7}}.</ref><ref>William Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1995). ''The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices''. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 130–133, 200.</ref> Key concepts include ''[[Simran (Sanskrit word)|Simran]]'', ''[[Selfless service|Seva]]'', the [[Three Pillars of Sikhism]], and the [[Five Thieves]].

===Modern Indian philosophy===
[[File:Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg|thumb|From left to right: [[Virchand Gandhi]], [[Anagarika Dharmapala]], [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[G. Bonet Maury]]. [[Parliament of the World's Religions|Parliament of World Religions]], 1893]]
In response to [[colonialism]] and their contact with [[Western philosophy]], 19th-century Indians developed new ways of thinking now termed [[Neo-Vedanta]] and Hindu modernism. Their ideas focused on the universality of Indian philosophy (particularly Vedanta) and the unity of different religions. It was during this period that Hindu modernists presented a single idealized and united "[[Hinduism]]." exemplified by the philosophy of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref>Yelle, Robert A. (2012), "Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different", International Journal of Hindu Studies, 16 (3): 335–348, {{doi|10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z}}</ref> They were also influenced by Western ideas.<ref>Halbfass, Wilhelm (2007a), "Research and reflection: Responses to my respondents. III. Issues of comparative philosophy (pp. 297–314)", in Franco, Eli; Preisendanz, Karin, Beyond Orientalism: the work of Wilhelm Halbfass and its impact on Indian and cross-cultural studies (1st Indian ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|81-208-3110-1}}</ref> The first of these movements was that of the [[Brahmo Samaj]] of [[Ram Mohan Roy]] (1772–1833).<ref>Michelis, Elizabeth De (2005), A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism, Continuum, {{ISBN|978-0-8264-8772-8}}</ref> [[Swami Vivekananda]] (1863–1902) was very influential in developing the [[Hindu reform movements]] and in bringing the worldview to the West.<ref>Georg, Feuerstein (2002), The Yoga Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</ref> Through the work of Indians like Vivekananda as well as westerners such as the proponents of the [[Theosophical Society|Theosophical society]], modern Hindu thought also influenced western culture.<ref>Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. pp. 185–188. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip</ref>

{{See also|Hinduism in the West}}

The political thought of [[Hindu nationalism]] is also another important current in modern Indian thought. The work of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Deendayal Upadhyaya]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Sri Aurobindo|Aurobindo]], [[Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya]], and [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] has had a large impact on modern Indian philosophy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Herbert Wallace |title=Modern Indian Thought (review) |journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy |date=1966 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=88 |id={{Project MUSE|229758}} |doi=10.1353/hph.2008.1443 |s2cid=143889851 }}</ref>

[[Jainism]] also had its modern interpreters and defenders, such as [[Virchand Gandhi]], [[Champat Rai Jain]], and [[Shrimad Rajchandra]] (well known as a spiritual guide of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]).