Editing Domitian (section)

== Early life ==

=== Background and family ===
[[Image:Flavian family tree.png|thumb|350px|The [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian family]] tree, indicating the descendants of [[Titus Flavius Petro]] and Tertulla]]
Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51,<ref name="suetonius-domitian" /> the youngest son of [[Vespasian|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]]—commonly known as Vespasian—and [[Domitilla the Elder|Flavia Domitilla Major]].<ref name="jones-domitian-1">Jones (1992), p. 1</ref> He had an older sister, [[Domitilla the Younger]], and brother, also named [[Titus|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]].<ref>Townend (1961), p. 62</ref> Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century.<ref name="jones-domitian-3">Jones (1992), p. 3</ref> One such family, the Flavians, or [[Flavia gens]], rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]].<ref name="jones-domitian-1"/>

Domitian's great-grandfather, [[Titus Flavius Petro]], had served as a [[centurion]] under [[Pompey]] during [[Caesar's civil war]]. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 BC.<ref name="jones-domitian-1"/> Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (father of Vespasian)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]], Domitian's grandfather.<ref name="jones-domitian-2">Jones (1992), p. 2</ref> Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] status through his services as [[tax collector]] in Asia and banker in [[Helvetia]] (modern Switzerland). By marrying [[Vespasia Polla]] he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious ''gens Vespasia'', ensuring the elevation of his sons [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul 47)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]] and Vespasian to [[Roman Senate|senatorial]] rank.<ref name="jones-domitian-2"/>

[[File:Domitian Denarius.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[denarius]] of Domitian. Caption: CAES. DOMIT. AVG. GERM. P. M., TR. P. XIIII.]]
The [[cursus honorum|political career]] of Vespasian included the offices of [[quaestor]], [[aedile]], and [[praetor]], and culminated in a [[Roman consul|consulship]] in 51, the year of Domitian's birth. As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the [[Roman conquest of Britain|Roman invasion of Britain]] in 43.<ref>Jones (1992), p. 8</ref> Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,<ref name="suetonius-domitian">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#1 1]</ref> even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors [[Caligula]] (37–41) and [[Nero]] (54–68).<ref>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#4 4]</ref> Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a [[propaganda]] campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor [[Claudius]] (41–54) and his son [[Britannicus]].<ref>Jones (1992), p. 7</ref>

By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as [[proconsul]] of the [[Africa Province]] in 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66.<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 9–11</ref> That same year Jews from the [[Iudaea Province|Province of Judaea]] revolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as the [[First Jewish–Roman War]]. Vespasian was assigned to lead the [[Roman army]] against the insurgents, with Titus—who had completed his military education by this time—in charge of a legion.<ref name="jones-domitian-11">Jones (1992), p. 11</ref>

=== Youth and character ===
[[File:Domitian Sestertius 92-94 AD.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A sestertius of Domitian|252x252px|A sestertius of Domitian. Caption: IMP. CAES. DOMIT. AVG. GERM. CO[N]S. IV, CENS. PERP. P. / IOVI VICTORI.]]
Of the three Flavian emperors, Domitian would rule the longest, despite the fact that his youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his older brother. [[Titus]] had gained military renown during the First Jewish–Roman War. After their father [[Vespasian]] became emperor in 69 following the [[civil war]] known as the [[Year of the Four Emperors]], Titus held a great many offices, while Domitian received honours, but no responsibilities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McFayden |first=Donald |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3155938 |title=The American Journal of Theology |date=1920 |volume=24 |issue=1 |page=48 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |jstor=3155938 |issn=1550-3283}}</ref> By the time he was 16 years old, Domitian's mother and sister had long since died,<ref>Waters (1964), pp. 52–53</ref> while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in [[Germania]] and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives.<ref name="jones-domitian-13">Jones (1992), p. 13</ref>
[[File:Gold Aureus of Domitian, Rome (MANTIS).jpg|thumb|196x196px|gold [[Aureus]] of Domitian]]
During the Jewish–Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 47)|Titus Flavius Sabinus II]], at the time serving as [[Praefectus urbi|city prefect]] of Rome; or possibly even [[Nerva|Marcus Cocceius Nerva]], a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian.<ref name="jones-domitian-13"/><ref>Murison (2003), p. 149</ref> He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying [[rhetoric]] and [[literature]]. In his biography in the ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'', [[Suetonius]] attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as [[Homer]] or [[Virgil]] on appropriate occasions,<ref>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#9 9]</ref><ref>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#12.3 12.3]</ref> and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation.<ref>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#20 20]</ref> Among his first published works were [[poetry]], as well as writings on law and administration.<ref name="jones-domitian-13"/> Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court. Whether he received formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow.<ref name=jones-16>Jones (1992), p. 16</ref><ref name="suetonius-domitian-19">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#19 19]</ref> A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality:

{{blockquote|He was tall of stature, with a modest expression and a high colour. His eyes were large, but his sight was somewhat dim. He was handsome and graceful too, especially when a young man, and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet, the toes of which were somewhat cramped. In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness, a protruding belly, and spindling legs, though the latter had become thin from a long illness.<ref>
[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|De Vita Caesarum]]'', "Life of Domitian", 18</ref>}}

Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs.<ref>Morgan (1997), p. 214</ref> According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of [[hair care]].<ref name="suetonius-domitian-18">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#18 18]</ref> With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.<ref name=jones-198>Jones (1992), p. 198</ref> Historian Brian Jones concludes in ''The Emperor Domitian'' that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.<ref name=jones-198/> Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes [[Self-deprecation|self-deprecating]] sense of humour,<ref>Morgan (1997), p. 209</ref><ref name="suetonius-domitian-21">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#21 21]</ref> and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing.<ref name="jones-domitian-13"/> Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, Domitian's formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power.<ref name=waters-54>Waters (1964), p. 54</ref>