Editing Diaspora (section)

==Etymology==
The term "diaspora" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] verb {{lang|grc|διασπείρω}} ({{lang|grc|diaspeirō}}), "I scatter", "I spread about" which in turn is composed of {{lang|grc|διά}} ({{lang|grc|dia}}), "between, through, across" and the verb {{lang|grc|σπείρω}} ({{lang|grc|speirō}}), "I sow, I scatter". The term {{lang|grc|διασπορά}} ({{lang|grc|diaspora}}) hence meant "scattering".<ref>{{LSJ|diaspora/|διασπορά|ref}}</ref>[[File: Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|''Emigrants Leave Ireland'' depicting the emigration from [[Ireland]] following the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]]]]

There is confusion over the exact process of derivation from these Ancient Greek verbs to the concept of diaspora. Many cite [[Thucydides]] (5th century BC) as the first to use the word.{{sfn|Chaliand|Rageau|1995|page=xiii, n. 1}}{{sfn|Tölölyan|1996|page=10}}{{sfn|Kenny|2013|page=2}} However, sociologist Stéphane Dufoix remarks "not only is the noun ''diaspora'' quite absent from the Greek original [Thucydides' ''Peloponnesian War'', II, 27)], but the original does not include the verb ''diaspeírô'' either. The verb used is the verb ''speírô'' (seed) conjugated in the passive aorist."{{sfn|Dufoix|2017|page=30–31}} The passage in Thucydides reads:

<blockquote>{{lang|grc|καὶ οἱ μὲν αὐτῶν ἐνταῦθα ᾤκησαν, οἱ δ᾽ '''ἐσπάρησαν''' [esparēsan] κατὰ τὴν ἄλλην Ἑλλάδα}}, translated to mean 'Those of the Aeginetans who did not settle here were '''scattered''' over the rest of Hellas.'<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0003.tlg001.perseus-eng3:2.27.2|title=Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, book 2, chapter 27, section 2|website=data.perseus.org}}</ref></blockquote>

Dufoix further notes, "Of all the occurrences of ''diaspora'' in the ''Thesaurus Linguae Graecae'' (TLG), which draws upon almost the entire written corpus in the Greek language . . . none refer to colonisation."{{sfn|Dufoix|2017|page=29}} Dufoix surmises that the confusion may stem from a comment by Jewish historian [[Simon Dubnow]], who wrote an entry on diaspora for the influential [[Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences]].{{sfn|Dufoix|2017|page=143}} His entry, published in 1931, includes the following remark: "In a sense [[Magna Graecia]] constituted a Greek diaspora in the ancient Roman Empire."{{sfn|Dubnow|1931|page=126}}{{efn|Dubnow's comment is referenced, for example, in an article by the editor of the journal ''Diaspora'', [[Khachig Tölölyan]]. Tölölyan cites but does not actually quote Dubnow, claiming that Dubnow "stipulates that the Greek colony-cities of Antiquity might be called diasporas," whereas Dubnow clearly refers to the colonies as they stood "in the ancient Roman Empire," that is, after they had lost their political independence.{{sfn|Tölölyan|1996|page=9}}}} "Magna Graecia" refers to ancient Greek colonies established along the Italian coast, which lost their independence following the [[Second Punic War]] and their integration into the Roman Empire.

The first recorded use of the word "diaspora" is found in the [[Septuagint]], first in:
* [[Deuteronomy]] 28:25, in the phrase {{lang|grc|ἔσῃ ἐν διασπορᾷ ἐν πάσαις ταῖς βασιλείαις τῆς γῆς}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|esē en diaspora en pasais tais basileiais tēs gēs}}, translated to mean 'thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth'
and secondly in:
* [[Psalms]] 146(147).2, in the phrase {{lang|grc|οἰκοδομῶν Ἰερουσαλὴμ ὁ Kύριος καὶ τὰς διασπορὰς τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ ἐπισυνάξει}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|oikodomōn Ierousalēm ho [[Kyrios]] kai tas diasporas tou Israēl episynaxē}}, translated to mean 'The Lord doth build up Jerusalem: he gathereth together the outcasts of Israel'.

When the Bible was translated into Greek, the word ''diaspora'' was applied in reference to the [[Northern Kingdom|Kingdom of Samaria]] which was exiled from Israel by the [[Assyria]]ns between 740 and 722 BC,<ref>[[Assyrian captivity of Israel]]</ref> as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from the [[Kingdom of Judah]] by the [[Babylonian exile|Babylonians]] in 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled from [[Roman Judea]] by the [[Roman Empire]] in 70 AD.<ref>Kantor, pp. 53, 105–106.</ref> It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the Jews.<ref>p. 1, Barclay</ref> In English, capitalized, and without modifiers, the term can refer specifically to the [[Jewish diaspora]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of DIASPORA |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diaspora |website=Merriam-Webster.com|date=23 July 2023 }}</ref> The wider application of ''diaspora'' evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part.<ref>Galil & Weinfeld, pp. 96–97.</ref>

===Definition===
[[File:Kurdish Refuge Camp in Suruc Turkey.jpg|thumb|[[Kurdish refugees]] from [[Kobanî]] in a refugee camp, on the Turkish side of the [[Syria–Turkey border]].]]
The oldest known use of the word "diaspora" in English is in 1594 in [[John Stockwood|John Stockwood's]] translation of [[Lambert Daneau|Lambert Daneau's]] commentary on the [[Twelve Prophets]]. Daneau writes:

<blockquote>This scattering abrode of the Iewes, as it were an heauenly sowing, fell out after their returne from the captiuitie of Babylon. Wherevpon both Acts. 2. and also 1. Pet. 1. and 1. Iam. ver. 1. [sic] they are called ''Diaspora'', that is, a scattering or sowing abrode.<ref>{{cite book|last=Daneau|first=Lambert|title=A Fruitfull Commentarie Vpon the Twelue Small Prophets|page=1042|url={{GBurl|id=626mnQAACAAJ}}}}</ref></blockquote>

However, the current entry on "diaspora" in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary Online]]'' dates the first recorded use a century later to 1694, in a work on ordination by the Welsh theologian James Owen. Owen wanted to prove that there is no difference in the Bible between Presbyters and Bishops; he cited the example of the Jews in exile:

<blockquote>The Presbyters of the Jewish ''Diaspora'', to whom St. ''Peter'' wrote, are requir'd ποιμαίνειν ϗ̀ ἐπισκοπείν, to feed or rule the Flock, and to perform the office and work of Bishops among them.<ref>{{cite book|last=Owen|first=James|title=A Plea for Scripture Ordination; or, Ten Arguments from Scripture and Antiquity, proving Ordination by Presbyters, without Bishops, to be valid|url={{GBurl|id=-3BjAAAAcAAJ|page=13}}|page=13}} Many today believe that the audience of the First Epistle of Peter to which Owen refers was in fact Christians of non-Jewish origin, but the consensus in Owen's time was that the letter was directed to ethnic Jews. See for example {{cite book|last=Calvin|first=John|title=Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles|url={{GBurl|id=ZBk2AQAAMAAJ|page=25}}|page=25}}</ref></blockquote>

The OED records a usage of "diaspora" in 1876, which refers to "extensive ''diaspora'' work (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/52085 |title=diaspora, n. |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary Online]] |date=November 2010 |access-date=22 February 2011}}</ref>

The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term [[expatriates]] in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=diaspora |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/diaspora-social-science |access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> An academic field, [[diaspora studies]], has become established relating to this sense of the word.

===Scholarly work and expanding definition===
[[File:Chinatownsyd.jpg|thumb|The [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese diaspora]] is the world's third largest; [[Torana#Paifang in China|Paifang]] ([[Torana|torna]]) gateway at [[Chinatown, Sydney|Sydney Chinatown]] in [[Australia]].]][[William Safran]] in an article published in 1991,{{sfn|Safran|1991|pp=83–99}} set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities. These included criteria that the group maintains a myth or [[collective memory]] of their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually [[Return migration|return]]; being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity.{{sfn|Brubaker|2005|p=5}}{{sfn|Weinar|2010|p=75}}{{sfn|Cohen|2008|p=6}} Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora.{{sfn|Cohen|2008|p=4}}  Safran also included a criterion of having been forced into exile by political or economic factors, followed by a long period of settlement in the new host culture.{{sfn|Safran|1991|pp=83–84}} In 1997, [[Robin Cohen]] argued that a diasporic group could leave its homeland voluntarily, and assimilate deeply into host cultures.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Robin |author-link=Robin Cohen |date=1997 |title=Global Diasporas |location=Seattle |publisher=University of Washington Press |doi=10.4324/9780203928943 |page=6|isbn=9781134077953 }}<!--There is a newer edition cited elsewhere in this article, but the page numbers may not match.--></ref>

[[Rogers Brubaker]] (2005) more inclusively applied three basic definitional criteria: First, geographic dispersion (voluntary or forced) of a people; second, "the orientation to a real or imagined 'homeland' as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty"; and third, maintenance of a social boundary corresponding to the conservation of a distinctive diasporic identity which differs from the host culture.{{sfn|Brubaker|2005|pp=5–6}} Brubaker also noted that the use of the term ''diaspora'' has been widening. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space".{{sfn|Brubaker|2005|p=3}} Brubaker used the [[WorldCat]] database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered.{{sfn|Brubaker|2005|p=14}}

Brubaker outlined the original use of the term ''diaspora'' as follows:{{sfn|Brubaker|2005|p=2}}

{{blockquote|Most early discussions of the diaspora were firmly rooted in a conceptual 'homeland'; they were concerned with a paradigmatic case, or a small number of core cases. The paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora; some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case.}}

[[File:Armenian dancers in downtown Manhattan, 1976.jpg|thumb|[[Armenian Americans|Armenian American]] dancers in [[New York City]]]]
Some observers have labeled evacuation from [[New Orleans]] and the [[Gulf Coast]] in the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]] the [[New Orleans diaspora]], since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.dailyfinance.com/story/katrina-evacuees-economic-impact-new-homes-destinations/19614294/ |title=The Economic Impact of the 'Katrina Diaspora' |first=Bruce |last=Kennedy |work=Daily Finance |date=31 August 2010 |access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4203360.stm |title=Katrina scatters a grim diaspora |first=Will |last=Walden |work=BBC News |date=1 September 2005 |access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, "a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost any ''population'' on the move and no longer referring to the specific ''context'' of their existence".{{sfn|Weinar|2010|p=75}} It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form a bond that mimics salient features of some ethnic diasporas.<ref>{{cite web |last=McAlister |first=Elizabeth |title=Listening for Geographies |url= http://works.bepress.com/elizabeth_mcalister/28/ |publisher=Routledge |access-date=5 November 2012 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130523040900/http://works.bepress.com/elizabeth_mcalister/28/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland<ref>{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=William|title=The Potential of Science Diasporas|journal=Science & Diplomacy|date=9 December 2013|volume=2|issue=4|url= http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2013/potential-science-diasporas}}</ref> and [[trading diaspora]]s are communities of merchant aliens. In an article published in 1996, [[Khachig Tölölyan]]{{sfn|Tölölyan|1996|pages=3–36}} argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to "mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval" (10) The use of [[corporate diaspora]] reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of [[late capitalism]] in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital.

In contemporary times, scholars have classified the different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such as [[Colonial diaspora|colonialism]], [[Trading diaspora|trade/labour migrations]], or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands. With greater migration flows through the world in modern times, the concept of a secondary diaspora (a new diaspora branching out of a previous diaspora) or sub-diaspora groupings has started being studied.<ref>[https://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/30_3_PDFs/IJFM_30_3-Rynkiewich.pdf Mission in “the Present Time”: What about the People in Diaspora?]  Michael A. Rynkiewich</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Délano Alonso |first1=Alexandra |last2=Mylonas |first2=Harris |date=2019-03-12 |title=The microfoundations of diaspora politics: unpacking the state and disaggregating the diaspora |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409160 |journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies |language=en |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=473–491 |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409160 |issn=1369-183X}}</ref> Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to the ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries. Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland. "Diaspora management" is a term that [[Harris Mylonas]] has "re-conceptualized to describe both the policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home".<ref>{{cite book |last=Mylonas |first=Harris |url=https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/wcfia/files/hmylonas_the_politics_of_diaspora_management_in_the_republic_of_korea.pdf |title=Issue Brief: The Politics of Diaspora Management in the Republic of Korea |date=2013 |publisher=The ASAN Institute for Policy Studies |location=Republic of Korea |page=1}}</ref>