Editing Demographics of India (section)

== History ==
{{See also|Economic history of India}}
[[File:Historical population of India and China.svg|thumb|left|Historical population of India and China since 1100 with projection to 2100]]

=== Prehistory to early 19th century ===
{{See also|Estimates of historical world population}}
The following table lists estimates for the population of India (including what are now [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]) from prehistory up until 1820. It includes estimates and growth rates according to five economic historians, along with [[Interpolation|interpolated]] estimates and overall [[Aggregate data|aggregate]] averages derived from their estimates.<ref>Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Statistical Appendix (2007, ggdc.net).
Estimates cited are for the beginning of the 1st millennium ("year 0"), the beginning of the 2nd millennium ("year 1000"), and for the beginning each century since the 16th (years 1820 and 1913 are given for the 19th and 20th century, respectively, as Maddison presents detailed estimates for these years), and a projection for the year 2030.</ref>
<ref name="ggdc.net">{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/38602317|title=Growth of World Population, GDP and GDP Per Capita before 1820|author=Angus Maddison|date=2001|page=238 }}</ref>
{{Hidden begin|title=Historical population (10,000 BC - 1820 CE)}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Year
! colspan="2" | [[Angus Maddison|Maddison]] (2001)<ref name="maddison">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=242 pages 241–242], [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref>
! colspan="2" | [[Colin Clark (economist)|Clark]] (1967)<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Colin Clark (economist)|Colin Clark]]|title=Population Growth and Land Use|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|year=1977|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|isbn=9781349157754}}</ref><ref name="maddison236">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=237 page 236], [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref><ref>John D. Durand, 1974, [http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=psc_penn_papers Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation], [[University of Pennsylvania]], Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10, page 9</ref>
! colspan="2" | Biraben (1979)<ref name="maddison236"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Structure, Culture, and History: Recent Issues in Social Theory|author=Sing C. Chew, J. David Knottnerus|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|year=2002|page=185|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WzXroSxMb0C&pg=PA185|isbn=9780847698370}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Demography: Analysis and Synthesis|author=Guillaume Wunsch, Graziella Caselli, Jacques Vallin|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|year=2005|chapter=Population in Time and Space|page=34|isbn=978-0-12-765660-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmgNXoiAiU4C&pg=RA2-PA34}}</ref>
! colspan="2" | Durand (1974)<ref>John D. Durand, 1974, [http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=psc_penn_papers Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation], [[University of Pennsylvania]], Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10, page 10</ref><ref name="maddison236"/>
! colspan="2" | [[Colin McEvedy|McEvedy]] (1978)<ref>{{cite book |author1=Colin McEvedy |author-link1=Colin McEvedy |author2=Richard Jones |date=1978 |title=Atlas of World Population History |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |location=New York |pages=182–185 |url=http://www.arabgeographers.net/up/uploads/14299936761.pdf#page=92}}</ref><ref name="maddison236"/>
! colspan="2" | [[Aggregate data|Aggregate]] average
! rowspan="2" | Period
! rowspan="2" | Average<br /> % growth<br /> / century
|-
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | [[Compound growth|% growth]]<br /> / century
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % growth<br /> / century
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % growth<br /> / century
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % growth<br /> / century
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % growth<br /> / century
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % growth<br /> / century
|-
| [[10,000 BC]]
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:100000}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:100000}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | [[South Asian Stone Age|Stone Age]]
| rowspan="2" | 3.9
|-
| 4000 BC
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:1000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:1000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.9
|-
| 2000 BC
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:6000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:6000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9.4
| [[Bronze Age India|Bronze Age]]
| 9.4
|-
| 500 BC
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:25000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 10
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:25000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 10
| rowspan="2" | [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]]
| rowspan="2" | 10.2
|-
| 400 BC
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:30000000}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:26600000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:28300000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 13.2
|-
| 200 BC
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:55000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 35.4
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:30000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:42500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 22.5
| [[Maurya Empire|Maurya era]]
| 22.5
|-
| 1 AD
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:70000000}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:46000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –9.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:34000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:60000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 18.8
| rowspan="4" | [[Classical India|Classical<br /> era]]
| rowspan="4" | 5.3
|-
| 200
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:72500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:45000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –1.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:39000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:61300000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1.1
|-
| 400
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:32000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –18.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:45000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:60400000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –0.7
|-
| 500
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:33000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:48000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:61200000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1.3
|-
| 600
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:37000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 12.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:51000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:62600000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.3
| rowspan="5" | [[Middle kingdoms of India|Early<br /> medieval<br /> era]]
| rowspan="5" | 1.9
|-
| 700
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:50000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 35.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:56500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 10.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:66300000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 5.9
|-
| 800
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:43000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –16.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:62000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 10.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:66000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –0.5
|-
| 900
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:72500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –3.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:38000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –13.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:69500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 11.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:66000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
|-
| 1000
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:70000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –3.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:40000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 5.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:77000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 11.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:67400000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.1
|-
| 1100
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:81000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:72500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:51000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 27.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:81300000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:80000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:73200000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8.6
| rowspan="5" | [[Medieval India|Late<br /> medieval<br /> era]]
| rowspan="5" | 8.1
|-
| 1200
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:87500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:65100000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 27.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:88200000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:83000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:79800000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9
|-
| 1300
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:94500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:83000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 27.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:95700000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:88000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:87200000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9.3
|-
| 1400
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:102000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:77000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:88800000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:103700000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:94000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:92900000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7
|-
| 1500
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:110000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:79000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:95000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:112500000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:100000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:99300000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7
|-
| 1600
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:135000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 22.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:100000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 26.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:145000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 52.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:135800000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:130000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 30
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:129200000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 30.1
| rowspan="3" | [[Mughal Empire|Mughal era]]
| rowspan="3" | 31.9
|-
| 1650
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:150000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 22.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:150000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 125
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:160000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:149100000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:145000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 24.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:150800000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 36.2
|-
| 1700
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:165000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 22.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:200000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 77.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:175000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:163900000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:160000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 21.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:172800000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 31.3
|-
| 1750
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:182100000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 21.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:200000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:182700000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:180000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:170000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 12.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:183000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 12.1
| rowspan="3" | [[Colonial India|Colonial<br /> era]]
| rowspan="3" | 12.2
|-
| 1800
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:200900000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 21.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:190000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | –10.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:190700000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:185000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 18.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:190400000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
|-
| 1820
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:209000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 21.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:190000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:194000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 9
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:200000000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 47.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:198300000}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 22
|}
{{Hidden end}}

===Population of India Over Time===

India's population has changed significantly due to migrations, technological advancements, and societal developments. Below is a table of historical population estimates:  

'''Estimated Population of India (10,000 BC – 2011)'''
{| class="wikitable" style="line-height:15px; text-align:center;"
|+ Historical Population of India (10,000 BC – 2011)
|-
! Era !! Year !! Estimated Population !! Growth Rate (%)
|-
| rowspan=2 | Prehistoric || 10,000 BC || 1,023,542 || N/A
|-
| 5000 BC  || 5,231,678 || +411.2%
|-
| rowspan=2 | Neolithic || 4000 BC || 7,003,245 || +33.9%
|-
| 3000 BC || 9,875,620 || +41.0%
|-
| rowspan=2 | Indus Valley Civilization || 2000 BC || 13,642,189 || +38.2%
|-
| 1500 BC || 15,246,830 || +11.8%
|-
| rowspan=2 | Vedic Period || 1000 BC || 16,895,450 || +10.8%
|-
| 500 BC || 22,783,692 || +34.9%
|-
| rowspan=2 | Maurya Empire || 250 BC || 40,684,927 || +78.6%
|-
| 1 AD || 51,287,345 || +26.1%
|-
| rowspan=5 | Classical India || 100 AD || 52,748,932 || +2.8%
|-
| 200 AD || 54,902,817 || +4.1%
|-
| 300 AD || 57,654,213 || +5.0%
|-
| 400 AD  || 60,834,921 || +5.5%
|-
| 500 AD || 64,291,782 || +5.7%
|-
| rowspan=5 | Early Medieval India || 600 AD || 68,102,304 || +5.9%
|-
| 700 AD || 71,837,610 || +5.5%
|-
| 800 AD || 75,983,210 || +5.8%
|-
| 900 AD || 81,274,936 || +7.0%
|-
| 1000 AD || 86,732,843 || +6.7%
|-
| rowspan=4 | Delhi Sultanate || 1100 AD || 91,403,287 || +5.4%
|-
| 1200 AD || 96,289,634 || +5.4%
|-
| 1300 AD || 101,984,726 || +5.9%
|-
| 1400 AD || 111,209,832 || +9.1%
|-
| rowspan=4 | Mughal Empire || 1500 AD || 121,847,294 || +9.6%
|-
| 1600 AD || 136,204,781 || +11.8%
|-
| 1700 AD || 161,874,263 || +18.9%
|-
| 1800 AD || 186,432,976 || +15.2%
|-
| rowspan=5 | Colonial Period || 1810 || 190,000,000 || +2.1%
|-
| 1820 || 195,000,000 || +2.6%
|-
| 1830 || 200,000,000 || +2.6%
|-
| 1840 || 205,000,000 || +2.5%
|-
| 1850 || 210,000,000 || +2.4%
|-
| rowspan=9 | British Raj || 1860 || 215,000,000 || +2.4%
|-
| 1870 || 220,000,000 || +2.3%
|-
| 1881 || 253,891,821 || +15.4%
|-
| 1891 || 287,223,431 || +13.1%
|-
| 1901 || 317,318,032 || +10.5%
|-
| 1911 || 317,369,222 || +0.02%
|-
| 1921 || 318,866,673 || +0.46%
|-
| 1931 || 337,515,000 || +5.8%
|-
| 1941 || 389,000,000 || +15.3%
|-
| rowspan=7 | Post-independence India || 1951 || 361,088,000 || -7.18%
|-
| 1961 || 439,235,000 || +21.7%
|-
| 1971 || 548,159,652 || +24.8%
|-
| 1981 || 683,329,097 || +24.7%
|-
| 1991 || 846,387,888 || +24.0%
|-
| 2001 || 1,028,610,328 || +21.5%
|-
| 2011 || 1,210,854,977 || +17.7%
|}

The population grew from the [[South Asian Stone Age]] in 10,000 BC to the [[Maurya Empire]] in 200 BC at a steadily increasing growth rate,<ref name="mcevedy184">{{cite book |author1=Colin McEvedy |url=http://www.arabgeographers.net/up/uploads/14299936761.pdf#page=92 |title=Atlas of World Population History |author2=Richard Jones |date=1978 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |location=New York |pages=184–185 |author-link1=Colin McEvedy}}</ref> before population growth slowed down in the [[Classical India|classical era]] up to 500 AD, and then became largely stagnant during the [[Middle kingdoms of India|early medieval era]] era up to 1000 AD.<ref name="maddison"/><ref name="maddison236"/> The population growth rate then increased in the [[Medieval India|late medieval era]] (during the [[Delhi Sultanate]]) from 1000 to 1500.<ref name="maddison"/><ref name="maddison236"/>

Under the [[Mughal Empire]], India experienced a high economic and demographic upsurge,<ref name="mcevedy184" /> due to Mughal [[agrarian reform]]s that intensified agricultural production.<ref name="richards">[[John F. Richards]] (1995), [https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA190 ''The Mughal Empire'', page 190], [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> 15% of the population lived in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the population in 19th-century [[British India]]<ref name="eraly">[[Abraham Eraly]] (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC&pg=PA5 ''The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age'', page 5], [[Penguin Books]]</ref> and contemporary Europe<ref name="eraly"/> up until the 19th century.<ref name="Malanima">{{cite book|title=Pre-Modern European Economy: One Thousand Years (10th–19th Centuries)|author=Paolo Malanima|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2009|page=244|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1Ej4VEPwSgC&pg=PA244|isbn=978-9004178229|author-link=Paolo Malanima}}</ref> These estimates by [[Abraham Eraly]]<ref name="eraly"/> and [[Paolo Malanima]]<ref name="Malanima"/> have been criticised by [[Tim Dyson]], who considers them exaggerations and estimates urbanisation of the Mughal Empire to be less than 9% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tim|first=Dyson|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day.|year=2018|pages=63–65}}</ref>

Under the reign of [[Akbar]] (reigned 1556–1605) in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, larger than the urban population in Europe.<ref name="habib170">{{cite book |author=[[Irfan Habib]] |author2=[[Dharma Kumar]] |author3=[[Tapan Raychaudhuri]]|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India|volume=1|page=170|year=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=186}}</ref> By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Broadberry|first1=Stephen|last2=Gupta|first2=Bishnupriya|title=Indian GDP before 1870: Some preliminary estimates and a comparison with Britain|url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/indiangdppre1870v4.pdf#page=23|page=23|publisher=[[Warwick University]]|year=2010|access-date=12 October 2015}}</ref> [[Nizamuddin Ahmad]] (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, Mughal India had 120 large cities and 3,200 townships.<ref name="eraly" /> A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people,<ref name="eraly" /> with larger cities including [[Agra]] (in [[Agra Subah]]) with up to 800,000 people<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Irfan Habib]] |author2=[[Dharma Kumar]] |author3=[[Tapan Raychaudhuri]]|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India|volume=1|page=171|year=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=187}}</ref> and [[Dhaka]] (in [[Bengal Subah]]) with over 1 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKIlAQAAMAAJ|title=Social Science Review|date=24 July 1997|publisher=Registrar, Dhaka University|via=Google Books}}</ref> Mughal India also had a large number of villages, with 455,698 villages by the time of [[Aurangzeb]] (reigned 1658–1707).<ref name="habib170" />

=== Late 19th century to early 20th century ===
The [[total fertility rate]] is the number of children born per woman. It is based on fairly good data for the entire years. Sources: [[Our World in Data]] and [[Gapminder Foundation]].<ref name="ourworldindata.org">{{citation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/fertility-rate|title=Fertility Rate|author=Max Roser|year=2014|work=[[Our World in Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! Years !! 1880!! 1881!! 1882!! 1883!! 1884!! 1885!! 1886!! 1887!! 1888!! 1889!! 1890!! 1902<ref name="ourworldindata.org" />
|-
| align="left" | Total Fertility Rate in India||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.95|| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.92 ||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.89||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.86||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.82||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.79||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 4.38||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.76||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.76||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.75||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.75||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.75
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! Years !! 1921!! 1922!! 1923!! 1924!! 1925!! 1926!! 1927!! 1928!! 1929!! 1930<ref name="ourworldindata.org" />
|-
| align="left" | Total Fertility Rate in India||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.761 ||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.77||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.78||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.79||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.8||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.81||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.82||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.83||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.85||style="text-align:right; color:blue;" | 5.86
|}

[[Life expectancy]] from 1881 to 1950

{| class="wikitable"
! Years
! 1881
! 1891
! 1901
! 1905
! 1911
! 1915
! 1921
! 1925
! 1931
! 1935
! 1941
! 1950<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?year=1810|title=Life expectancy|website=Our World in Data|access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref>
|-
| Life expectancy in India
| 25.4
| 24.3
| 23.5
| 24.0
| 23.2
| 24.0
| 24.9
| 27.6
| 29.3
| 31.0
| 32.6
| 35.4
|}

The population of India under the [[British Raj]] (including what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh) according to censuses:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" style="text-align: left;" | [[Census of India|Census year]]
! scope="col" style="text-align: right;" data-sort-type="number" | [[List of states in India by past population|Population]]
! scope="col" style="text-align: right;" data-sort-type="number" | Growth (%)
|-
| 1871<ref name="chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au">{{cite web|url=http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/default.htm |title=Digital Colonial Documents (India) |access-date=9 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408000302/http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/default.htm |archive-date=8 April 2011 }}</ref>
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:238830958}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
| 1881<ref>{{cite book|title=Census of the British empire: 1901|publisher=[[Census in the United Kingdom|Great Britain Census Office]]|year=1906|page=xviii|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924030396067#page/n21/mode/2up}}</ref>
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:253896330}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.3
|-
| 1891<ref name="chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au" />
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:287223431}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 13.1
|-
| 1901<ref name="chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au" />
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:293550310}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.2
|-
| 1911<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/old_report/index%20old%20census.html |title=Census of India – Index of Old Census Reports |access-date=9 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006190625/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/old_report/index%20old%20census.html |archive-date=6 October 2011 }}</ref>
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:315156396}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 7.4
|-
| 1921<ref name="censusindia.gov.in" />
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:318942480}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1.2
|-
| 1931<ref name="censusindia.gov.in" />
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:352837778}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 10.6
|-
| 1941<ref name="censusindia.gov.in" />
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:388997955}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 10.2
|}

Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a million, and the three cities with populations over eight million: Delhi, Greater Mumbai (Bombay), and Kolkata (Calcutta).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Khan J.H. | year = 2004 | title = Population growth and demographic change in India | journal = Asian Profile | volume = 32 | issue = 5| pages = 441–460 }}</ref>

Mortality rates fell in the period 1920–45, primarily due to biological immunisation. Suggestions that it was the benefits of colonialism are refuted by academic thinking: "There can be no serious, informed belief... that... late colonial era mortality diminished and population grew rapidly because of improvements in income, living standards, nutrition, environmental standards, sanitation or health policies, nor was there a cultural transformation...".<ref>{{cite journal | author = Klein Ira | year = 1990 | title = The demographic revolution | journal = Indian Economic and Social History Review | volume = 27 | issue = 1| pages = 33–63 | doi = 10.1177/001946469002700102 | s2cid = 144517813 }}</ref>