Editing Deixis (section)

== Types ==
There are three main types of deictic words, as described by [[Charles J. Fillmore]]: personal, spatial, and temporal.<ref name="Fillmore">Fillmore, Charles J (1971) ''Lectures on Deixis''. CSLI Publications (reprinted 1997).</ref> In some languages, these may overlap, such as spatial and personal deixis in many [[Sign language|signed]] pronouns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berenz |first=Norine |date=2002-01-01 |title=Insights into person deixis |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/sll.5.2.06ber |journal=Sign Language & Linguistics |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=203–227 |doi=10.1075/sll.5.2.06ber |issn=1387-9316}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cormier |first1=Kearsy |last2=Schembri |first2=Adam |last3=Woll |first3=Bencie |date=2013-12-01 |title=Pronouns and pointing in sign languages |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024384113002167 |journal=Lingua |volume=137 |pages=230–247 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2013.09.010 |issn=0024-3841}}</ref> Some linguists consider social deixis to be a fourth type.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stapleton |first=Andreea |date=2017-01-01 |title=Deixis in Modern Linguistics |url=http://publications.essex.ac.uk/esj/article/id/23/ |journal=Essex Student Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi=10.5526/esj23 |issn=2633-7045}}</ref>

=== Personal ===
{{Main|Pronouns}}
Personal deictic words, called personal pronouns in English, refer to the [[grammatical person]]s involved in an utterance. These can include the first person (speaker), second person (addressee), third, and in some languages fourth and fifth person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charney |first=Rosalind |date=2008-09-26 |title=Speech roles and the development of personal pronouns |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language/article/abs/speech-roles-and-the-development-of-personal-pronouns/824188D7BECA4144C8CBD7A71D9FB2F1 |journal=Journal of Child Language |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=509–528 |doi=10.1017/S0305000900002816 |pmid=7440674 |issn=1469-7602}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=David W. |date=2008-07-01 |title=Coreferential Fourth-Person Pronouns in Matses |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/590084 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |language=en |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=279–311 |doi=10.1086/590084 |issn=0020-7071}}</ref> Personal deixis may give further information about the referent, such as [[gender]]. Examples of personal deixis include:{{cn|date=June 2024}}

:''I'' am going to the cinema.
:Would ''you'' like to have dinner?
:''They'' tried to hurt ''me'', but ''she'' helped me.

=== Spatial ===
Spatial, or place, deixis is used to refer to spatial locations relative to an utterance. Similarly to personal deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker and addressee or those of persons or objects being referred to. Spatial demonstratives include locative [[Adverb|adverbs]] (e.g. ''here'' and ''there)'' and [[Demonstrative|demonstratives]] (e.g. ''this'', ''these'', ''that'', and ''those)'' although those are far from exclusive.<ref name=" Fillmore" /> Spatial demonstratives are often relative to the location of the speaker<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=David |date=February 2012 |title=Here Is/Where There/Is: Some Observations of Spatial Deixis in Robert Creeley's Poetry |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-american-studies/article/abs/here-iswhere-thereis-some-observations-of-spatial-deixis-in-robert-creeleys-poetry/D3E0A0CE21F7925A88B1BC92A66351F0 |journal=Journal of American Studies |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=73–87 |doi=10.1017/S0021875811000053 |issn=1469-5154}}</ref> such as:

:The shop is ''across the street''.

where "across the street" is understood to mean "across the street from where I [the speaker] am right now."<ref name="Fillmore" />

Words relating to spatial deixis can be proximal (near, such as English [right] ''here'' or ''this''), medial (near the addressee, such as English [over] ''there'' or ''that''), distal (far, such as English [out] ''there'' or ''that''), far-distal (far from both the speaker and addressee, such as archaic English ''yon'' and ''[[wikt:yonder|yonder]]).''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lander |first1=Eric |last2=Haegeman |first2=Liliane |date=2016-09-30 |title=The Nanosyntax of Spatial Deixis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/stul.12061 |journal=Studia Linguistica |language=en |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=362–427 |doi=10.1111/stul.12061 |issn=0039-3193|hdl=1854/LU-8166998 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The [[Malagasy language]] has seven degrees of distance combined with two degrees of visibility, while many Inuit languages have even more complex systems.<ref>{{cite journal| url = http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/465747?journalCode=ijal| title = J. Peter Denny, "Semantics of the Inuktitut (Eskimo) Spatial Deictics"| journal = International Journal of American Linguistics| date = October 1982| volume = 48| issue = 4| pages = 359–384| doi = 10.1086/465747| last1 = Denny| first1 = J. Peter| s2cid = 144418641}}</ref>

=== Temporal ===
Temporal, or time, deixis is used to refer to time relevant to the utterance. This includes temporal [[adverbs]] (e.g. ''then'' and ''soon''), [[Noun|nouns]] (e.g. ''tomorrow'') and use of [[grammatical tense]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Horn |first1=Laurence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlMPrAPo2-YC |title=Handbook of Pragmatics |last2=Ward |first2=Gergory |date=2004-02-23 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-22547-8 |language=en |chapter=Chapter five: Deixis}}</ref> Temporal deixis can be relative to the time when an utterance is made (the speaker’s "now") or the time when the utterance is heard or seen (the addressee’s "now").{{cn|date=June 2024}} Although these are often the same time, they can differ in cases such as a voice recording or written text. For example:

:It is raining ''now'', but I hope ''when'' you read this it will be sunny.

Tenses are usually separated into [[Relative and absolute tense|absolute (deictic) and relative tenses]]. For example, simple English past tense is absolute, such as "He ''went."'' whereas the [[pluperfect]] is relative to some other deictically specified time, as in "When I got home, he ''had gone''."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vandelanotte |first=Lieven |date=2004-03-01 |title=Deixis and grounding in speech and thought representation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378216603001437 |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=489–520 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.003 |issn=0378-2166}}</ref>

=== Discourse deixis ===
Discourse deixis, also referred to as text deixis, refers to the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse that contain the utterance—including the utterance itself. For example, in "''This'' is a great story." ''this'' refers to an upcoming portion of the discourse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Webber |first=Bonnie Lynn |date=June 1988 |title=Discourse Deixis: Reference to Discourse Segments |url=https://aclanthology.org/P88-1014 |journal=26th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics |location=Buffalo, New York, USA |publisher=Association for Computational Linguistics |pages=113–122 |doi=10.3115/982023.982037}}</ref>

[[Switch reference]] is a type of discourse deixis, and a grammatical feature found in some languages, which indicates whether the argument of one clause is the same as the argument of the previous clause. In some languages, this is done through same subject markers and different subject markers. In the translated example "John punched Tom, and left-[same subject marker]," it is John who left, and in "John punched Tom, and left-[different subject marker]," it is Tom who left.<ref>{{Citation |last=Givón |first=T. |title=Switch Reference and Universal Grammar |date=1983 |volume=2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/51 51] |series=Typological Studies in Language |chapter=Topic continuity in discourse: The functional domain of switch-reference |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/51 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |doi=10.1075/tsl.2.06giv |isbn=978-9027228666}}</ref>

Discourse deixis has been observed in [[Computer-mediated communication|internet language]], particularly with the use of [[Iconicity|iconic]] language forms resembling arrows.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collister|first=Lauren B.|date=March 2012|title=The discourse deictics ∧ and ← in a World of Warcraft community|journal=Discourse, Context & Media|volume=1|issue=1|pages=9–19|doi=10.1016/j.dcm.2012.05.002|url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/17348/4/32312revision-collister-discoursecontextandmedia-arrowandcarat-titlepag.pdf}}</ref>

=== Social deixis ===
Social deixis concerns the social information that is encoded within various expressions, such as relative social status and familiarity. These include [[T–V distinction|T–V distinctions]]<ref name="Foley">Foley, William. 1997. ''Anthropological linguistics: An introduction''. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> and [[Honorific|honorifics]].