Editing Culture of Canada (section)

==Cultural components ==

===History===
====Influences====
{{Main|Canadians|History of Canada}}
[[File:Fur traders in canada 1777.jpg|right|thumb|[[Fur trade]]rs at work as depicted in 1777 by [[Claude J. Sauthier]]]]
For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|indigenous peoples]] from a variety of [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas|different cultures]] and of [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|several major linguistic groupings]].<ref name="FriesenHarrison2010m">{{cite book|first1=Trevor W.|last1=Harrison|first2=John W.|last2=Friesen|title=Canadian Society in the Tw.enty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVGDUAP3LjAC&pg=PA186|year=2010|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-371-0|page=186}}</ref> Although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] and [[Inuit]] populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful.<ref name="Preston2009">{{cite book|first=David L.|last=Preston|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|pages=43–44|access-date=September 27, 2016|archive-date=March 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173811/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|url-status=live}}</ref> First Nations and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in the exploration of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref name="Miller2009">{{cite book|author=J.R. Miller|title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34|year=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5|page=34|access-date=September 27, 2016|archive-date=March 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34|url-status=live}}</ref> Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an everyday part of [[Languages of Canada|Canadian language]] and use.<ref name=Edinburgh>{{cite web|last=Newhouse |first=David |url=http://www.cst.ed.ac.uk/2005conference/papers/Newhouse_paper.pdf |title=Hidden in Plain Sight Aboriginal Contributions to Canada and Canadian Identity Creating a new Indian Problem |work=Centre of Canadian Studies, University of Edinburgh |access-date=October 17, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723221908/http://www.cst.ed.ac.uk/2005conference/papers/Newhouse_paper.pdf |archive-date=July 23, 2011  }}</ref> [[List of place names in Canada of aboriginal origin|Many places in Canada]], both natural features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The [[Name of Canada|name "Canada"]] itself derives from the [[Laurentian language|St. Lawrence Huron-Iroquoian]] word "Kanata" meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref name=places/> The name of Canada's capital city [[Ottawa]] comes from the [[Algonquin language]] term "adawe" meaning "to trade".<ref name=places>{{cite web |url=http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/mr/is/info106-eng.asp |title=Aboriginal place names contribute to a rich tapestry |work=Indian and Northern Affairs Canada |access-date=October 17, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210042502/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/mr/is/info106-eng.asp |archive-date=February 10, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Keep All Canadians Busy - Victory bonds poster.jpg|upright|left|thumb|A Canadian [[war bond]] poster that depicts an industrious beaver, a [[National symbols of Canada|national symbol of Canada]]]]

In the 17th-century, French colonials settled [[New France]] in [[Acadia]], in the present-day [[The Maritimes|Maritimes]], and in ''[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]'', along the [[St. Lawrence River]] in present-day [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]].<ref name="Hudson2002">{{cite book|first=John C.|last=Hudson|title=Across this land: a regional geography of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FQUbfAWhh-oC&pg=PA15|year= 2002|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6567-1|page=15}}</ref> These regions were under [[French colonial empire|French control]] from 1534 to 1763. However, the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|conquered Acadia]] in 1710 and [[Conquest of New France (1758–1760)|conquered ''Canada'']] in 1760. The British were able to [[Deportation of the Acadians|deport most of the Acadians]], but they were unable to deport the [[Canadien]]s of ''[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]'' because they severely outnumbered the British forces. The British therefore had to [[Conquest of New France (1758–1760)#Consequences|make deals with Canadiens]] and [[Quebec nationalism|hope they would one day become assimilated]].<ref name="Powell2009v">{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA45|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=45}}</ref> The [[American Revolution]], from 1775 to 1783, provoked the migration of 40,000 to 50,000 [[United Empire Loyalist]]s from the [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the newly conquered British lands, which brought American influences to Canada for the first time.<ref name="Powell2009v"/> Following the [[War of 1812]], many [[Scottish Canadian|Scottish]] and [[English Canadian|English]] people settled in [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]]. Many [[Irish people]] fleeing the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] also arrived between 1845 and 1852.<ref name="Powell2009v"/>

The [[Canadian Forces]] and overall civilian participation in the [[Military history of Canada during World War I|First World War]] and [[Military history of Canada during World War II|Second World War]] helped to foster [[Canadian nationalism]];<ref name="Francisags">{{cite book|editor=R. Douglas Francis|title=Canada and the British World: Culture, Migration, and Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bTEB8q-yzEwC&pg=PA2|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4031-6|page=2|date=November 1, 2011}}</ref> however, in 1917 and 1944, [[Conscription Crisis of 1917|conscription crises]] highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.<ref name="Taucar2002hy">{{cite book|author=Christopher Edward Taucar|title=Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t17352tmB74C&pg=PA47|volume= 47 |year=2002|publisher=American university studies: Political science|isbn=978-0-8204-6242-4|pages=47–48}}</ref> As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.<ref name="Thompson2013c">{{cite book|first=Wayne C.|last=Thompson|title=Canada World Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0fuXAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|year=2013|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4758-0474-4|page=61}}</ref> Canada, until the 1940s, was often described as "[[Multinational state|binational]]", with the 2 components being the cultural, linguistic and political identities of [[English Canadian]]s and of [[French Canadian]]s.<ref name="Robinson1991">{{cite book|first=Guy M.|last=Robinson|title=A Social geography of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kwGvh6kmIsC&pg=PA86|year=1991|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-1-55002-092-2|page=86}}</ref>

Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the [[Continuous journey regulation]] and ''[[Chinese Immigration Act, 1923|Chinese Immigration Act]]'') that had favoured British, American and other European immigrants (such as [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Dutch]], [[German Canadian|German]], [[Italian Canadians|Italian]], [[Polish Canadians|Polish]], [[Swedish Canadian|Swedish]] and [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]]) were amended during the 1960s,<ref name="Kivisto2008j">{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Kivisto|title=Multiculturalism in a Global Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AuRZzuF0tsC&pg=PA90|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-69480-0|page=90}}</ref><ref name="Bromley2011">{{cite book|author=Patricia E.. Bromley|title=Human Rights, Diversity, and National Identity: Changes in Civic Education Textbooks Cross-nationally (1970–2008) and in British Columbia (1871–2008)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-wJmwGN0GUC&pg=PA107|year=2011|publisher=Stanford University|pages=107–108|id=STANFORD:XT006FZ3167}}</ref> resulting in an influx of people of many different ethnicities.<ref name="KsenychLiu2001">{{cite book|first1=Edward|last1=Ksenych|first2=David|last2=Liu|title=Conflict, order and action: readings in sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GdvsIo7V9HgC&pg=PA407|year=2001|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-192-1|page=407}}</ref> By the end of the 20th century, immigrants were increasingly [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]], [[Indian Canadian|Indian]], [[Vietnamese Canadian|Vietnamese]], [[Jamaican Canadian|Jamaican]], [[Filipino Canadian|Filipino]], [[Lebanese Canadians|Lebanese]], [[Pakistani Canadians|Pakistani]] and [[Haitian Canadian|Haitian]].<ref name=Multicultural>{{cite web|title=Immigration Policy in the 1970s|url=http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i2/10|publisher=Canadian Heritage (Multicultural Canada)|year=2004|access-date=April 12, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105062130/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i2/10|archive-date=November 5, 2009}}</ref> By the 21st century Canada had [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|thirty four ethnic groups]] with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller numbers.<ref name=stats>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/rt-td/index-eng.cfm|title=2006 Census release topics|publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=January 16, 2011|archive-date=September 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930221510/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/rt-td/index-eng.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|2006}}, 16.2% of the population self-identify as a [[visible minority]].<ref name=stats/>

====Development of popular culture====
[[File:Good old days of ice hockey.png|upright=1.2|thumb|"Ye Gude Olde Days" from ''[[Hockey: Canada's Royal Winter Game]]'', 1899|alt=Cartoon drawing of hockey game and people falling through the ice]]
Themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian culture.<ref name="pioneer lit">{{cite web
|url=http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/pioneers/pioneers7_e.html
|title=Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants
|publisher=The History Channel
|date=August 25, 2005
|access-date=November 30, 2006
|archive-date=January 21, 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121030210/http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/pioneers/pioneers7_e.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Modern Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its time [[Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)#Expansion|period of westward expansion]] and nation building.<ref name="Blad2011">{{cite book|first=Cory|last=Blad|title=Neoliberalism and National Culture: State-Building and Legitimacy in Canada and Québec|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AV9KqcFm7rcC&pg=PA62|date=23 September 2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-21111-7|pages=62–}}</ref> Contributing factors include Canada's unique geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities developed in Canada during this period including [[ice hockey]] and embracement of the summer indigenous game of [[lacrosse]].<ref>Suzanne Morton, "Leisure," ''Oxford Companion to Canadian History'' (2006) pp 355–56.</ref><ref>George Karlis, ''Leisure and recreation in Canadian society: An introduction'' (2011).</ref><ref>Gerald Redmond, "Some Aspects of Organized Sport and Leisure in Nineteenth-Century Canada." ''Loisir et société/Society and Leisure'' 2#1 (1979): 71–100.</ref>

By the 19th century, [[Canadians]] came to believe themselves possessed of a unique "northern character," due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive.<ref name="Cameron1997">{{cite book|first=Elspeth|last=Cameron|title=Canadian Culture: An Introductory Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nlaMbSkgwL4C&pg=PA84|year=1997|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-090-0|page=84}}</ref> This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and sports that reflected this, such as [[snowshoeing]] and [[cross-country skiing]], were asserted as characteristically Canadian.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Dave |last=Brown |title=The Northern Character Theme and Sport in Nineteenth Century Canada |journal=Canadian Journal of History of Sport |date=1989 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.1123/cjhs.20.1.47}}</ref> During this period, the churches tried to influence leisure activities by preaching against drinking, and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lynne Sorrel Marks|title=Revivals and Roller Rinks: Religion, Leisure, and Identity in Late-nineteenth-century Small-town Ontario|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2T4miKwsIIcC&pg=PR1|year=1996|publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=9780802078001}}</ref> In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song.<ref>The Piano Concerto in Canada, 1900–1980 a bibliographic survey. by Zuk, Ireneus.  Baltimore, Md. Peabody Institute, 1985. 429 p. (Ref ML128 .P3Z85 1985t)</ref> Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment.<ref name="Century" >Making Music: Profiles from a Century of Canadian Music, Alex Barris and Ted Barris. Toronto: HarperCollins, 2001.</ref><ref>''Canadian news facts'' v. 35 no. 22 (15 December 2001. {{ISSN|0008-4565}}</ref>

By the 1930s, radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional teams. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage and the propagation of [[Canadian folklore|national myths]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lorenz | first1 = Stacy L. | year = 2000 | title = "A Lively Interest on the Prairies": Western Canada, the Mass Media, and a 'World of Sport,' 1870–1939 | journal = Journal of Sports History | volume = 27 | issue = 2| pages = 195–227 }}</ref> Outside the sports and music arena, Canadians expressed a national character of being hard working, peaceful, orderly and polite.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Michael A. |last=Robidoux |title=Imagining a Canadian Identity through Sport: A Historical Interpretation of Lacrosse and Hockey |journal=The Journal of American Folklore |date=Spring 2002 |volume=115 |issue=456 |pages=209–225 |jstor=4129220 |doi=10.1353/jaf.2002.0021|s2cid=144703704 }}</ref>

===Political culture===

====Cultural legislation====
{{Main|Official bilingualism in Canada|Human rights in Canada|Multiculturalism in Canada}}
[[File:Statue outside Union Station.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Monument to Multiculturalism]] by Francesco Pirelli, in [[Toronto]]]]
[[French Canada]]'s early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by the [[Quebec Act 1774]], which allowed Roman Catholics to hold offices and practice their faith.<ref name="quebec culture survival">{{cite encyclopedia
|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/quebec-city-quebec
|title=Quebec
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|encyclopedia=The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
|year=2003
|access-date=November 30, 2006
|archive-date=January 2, 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102182828/http://www.answers.com/topic/quebec-city-quebec
|url-status=live
}}</ref> The ''[[Constitution Act, 1867]]'' was thought to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] in the United States.<ref name="civil war">{{cite encyclopedia
|url=http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/american-civil-war/
|title=American Civil war
|publisher=Historica Founcation
|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia
|year=2003
|access-date=November 30, 2006
|archive-date=May 24, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524050304/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/american-civil-war
|url-status=live
}}</ref> The compromises reached during this time between the English- and French-speaking [[Fathers of Confederation]] set Canada on a path to [[Multilingualism|bilingualism]] which in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity.<ref name="Coche">{{cite book|author=François Vaillancourt, Olivier Coche|title=Official Language Policies at the Federal Level in Canada:costs and Benefits in 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCZm8op2bjQC&pg=PA11|publisher=The Fraser Institute|page=11|id=GGKEY:B3Y7U7SKGUD|year=2009}}</ref> The English and French languages have had limited constitutional protection since 1867 and full official status since 1969.<ref name="LinteauDurocher1983"/> Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 (BNA Act) guarantees that both languages may be used in the [[Parliament of Canada]].<ref name="LinteauDurocher1983">{{cite book|first1=Paul André|last1=Linteau|first2=René|last2=Durocher|first3=Jean-Claude|last3=Robert|title=Quebec, a history, 1867–1929|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vA0o0e0PdgC&pg=PA219|year= 1983|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|isbn=978-0-88862-604-2|page=219}}</ref> Canada adopted its ''[[Official Languages Act (Canada)|first Official Languages Act]]'' in 1969, giving English and French equal status in the government of Canada.<ref name="Kosel2010f"/> Doing so makes them "official" languages, having preferred status in law over all other [[Languages of Canada|languages used in Canada]].<ref name="Kosel2010f">{{cite book|first=Jochen|last=Kosel|title=The Language Situation in Canada with Special Regard to Quebec|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hkVZOHj-i2AC&pg=PA15|year=2010|publisher=GRIN Verlag|isbn=978-3-640-65926-5|page=15}}</ref>

Prior to the advent of the ''[[Canadian Bill of Rights]]'' in 1960 and its successor the ''[[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]'' in 1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way of [[Human rights in Canada|civil rights]] and this issue was typically of limited concern to the courts.<ref name="ChurchSchulze2007">{{cite book|first1=Joan|last1=Church|first2=Christian|last2=Schulze|first3=Hennie|last3=Strydom|title=Human rights from a comparative and international law perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2sMwFTOrixwC&pg=PA82|year= 2007|publisher=Unisa Press|isbn=978-1-86888-361-5|page=82}}</ref> Canada since the 1960s has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people.<ref name="MacLennan2004">{{cite book|first=Christopher|last=MacLennan|title=Toward the Charter: Canadians and the Demand for a National Bill of Rights, 1929–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxt6VAsdW5oC&pg=PA119|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2536-8|page=119}}</ref> [[Multiculturalism in Canada]] was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government and is enshrined in [[Section Twenty-seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref name="Black-BranchAssociation1995">{{cite book|first1=Jonathan L.|last1=Black-Branch|author2=Canadian Education Association|title=Making Sense of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b287tH3UbkAC&pg=PA38|year=1995|publisher=Canadian Education Association|isbn=978-0-920315-78-1|page=38}}</ref><ref name="DuncanLey1993">{{cite book|first1=James S.|last1=Duncan|first2=David|last2=Ley|title=Place/culture/representation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsINAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA205|year=1993|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-09451-1|pages=205–}}</ref> In 1995, the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] ruled in ''[[Egan v. Canada]]'' that [[sexual orientation]] should be "read in" to [[Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], a part of the [[Constitution of Canada]] guaranteeing [[Human rights in Canada|equal rights]] to all Canadians.<ref name="Dranoff2011">{{cite book|author=Linda Silver Dranoff|title=Every Canadian's Guide to the Law: Fourth Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukQzP_ZLOAcC&pg=PT373|access-date=February 3, 2012|year= 2011|publisher=HarperCollins Canada|isbn=978-1-4434-0559-1|pages=373–}}</ref> Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, the ''[[Civil Marriage Act]]'' (Bill C-38) became law, legalizing [[same-sex marriage in Canada]].<ref name="Angelini2011">{{cite book|author=Paul Ubaldo Angelini|title=Our Society: Human Diversity in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rt-xlgrkYXAC&pg=PT315|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-650354-3|page=315}}</ref> Furthermore, sexual orientation was included as a protected status in the human-rights laws of the federal government and of all provinces and territories.<ref name="Steinberg2009">{{cite book|first=Shirley R.|last=Steinberg|title=Diversity and Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=txRWlIvanPsC&pg=PA184|year=2009|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-0345-2|page=184}}</ref>

==== Contemporary politics====
{{Main|Politics of Canada}}
[[File:Parliament-Ottawa.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Centre Block]] of the Canadian parliament buildings on [[Parliament Hill]]]] 
[[Canadian government]]s at the federal level have a tradition of [[liberalism]],<ref name="WesthuesWharf2014a">{{cite book|first1=Anne|last1=Westhues|first2=Brian|last2=Wharf|title=Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10|year=2014|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|isbn=978-1-55458-409-3|pages=10–11}}</ref> and govern with a [[moderate]], [[centrist]] political ideology.<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book|first=David|last=Johnson|title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|year=2016|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0|pages=13–23|quote=...most Canadian governments, especially at the federal level, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...|access-date=October 29, 2018|archive-date=March 31, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010046/https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Plurality-Majority Electoral Systems: A Review |url=http://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=rec/fra/sys/courtney&document=courtney&lang=e |website=Elections Canada |date=August 27, 2018 |quote=First Past the Post in Canada has favoured broadly-based, accommodative, centrist parties... |access-date=October 29, 2018 |archive-date=September 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190912221327/https://elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=rec/fra/sys/courtney&document=courtney&lang=e |url-status=live }}</ref> Canada's [[egalitarian]] approach to governance emphasizing [[social justice]] and multiculturalism, is based on selective [[economic migrant|immigration]], [[social integration]], and [[Suppression of dissent|suppression]] of [[far-right politics]] that has wide public and political support.<ref name="Ambrosea">{{Cite journal|title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|volume=21|issue=2|pages=213–236|doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033|year=2015|first1=Emma|last1=Ambrosea|first2=Cas|last2=Muddea|s2cid=145773856}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited|title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave|newspaper=The New York Times|year=2017|last1=Taub|first1=Amanda}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Peace, order, and good government]] are constitutional goals of the Canadian government.<ref name="DixonScheurell2016">{{cite book|first1=John|last1=Dixon|first2=Robert P.|last2=Scheurell|title=Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|date=17 March 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-36677-5|pages=48–}}</ref>

Canada has a [[multi-party system]] in which many of its legislative customs derive from the unwritten [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] of and precedents set by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Westminster parliament]] of the United Kingdom. The country has been dominated by two parties,<ref name="EvansGraaf2013">{{cite book|first1=Geoffrey|last1=Evans|first2=Nan Dirk|last2=de Graaf|title=Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166|year=2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-966399-6|pages=166–167}}</ref> the [[centre-left]] [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[centre-right]] [[Conservative Party of Canada]].<ref name="BaumerGold2015">{{cite book|first1=Donald C.|last1=Baumer|first2=Howard J.|last2=Gold|title=Parties, Polarization and Democracy in the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uBbvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT152|year=2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-25478-2|page=152|access-date=October 29, 2018|archive-date=March 31, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331010054/https://books.google.com/books?id=uBbvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT152|url-status=live}}</ref> The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale,<ref>{{cite book|first1=Amanda|last1=Bittner|first2=Royce|last2=Koop|title=Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300|date=1 March 2013|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-2411-8|page=300|quote=Domination by the Centre The central anomaly of the Canadian system, and the primary cause of its other peculiarities, has been its historical domination by a party of the centre. In none of the other countries is a centre party even a major player, much less the dominant....|access-date=October 29, 2018|archive-date=March 31, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331005406/https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300|url-status=live}}</ref> with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the [[New Democratic Party]] occupying the [[left-wing|left]].<ref name="EvansGraaf2013"/> Smaller parties like the [[Quebec nationalist]] [[Bloc Québécois]] and the [[Green Party of Canada]] have also been able to exert their influence over the political process by representation at the federal level.

====Nationalism and protectionism====
{{Main|Canadian nationalism|Quebec nationalism|Quebec sovereignty movement|Canadian cultural protectionism}}
[[File:St-Jean!042.jpg|right|thumb|[[Quebec's National Holiday]] ({{langx|fr|link=no|La Fête nationale du Québec}}) is celebrated annually on June 24, [[Nativity of St. John the Baptist|St. John the Baptist Day]].]]
In general, Canadian nationalists are concerned about the protection of Canadian sovereignty and loyalty to the [[Monarchy of Canada|Canadian State]], placing them in the [[Liberal nationalism|civic nationalist]] category. It has likewise often been suggested that [[anti-Americanism]] plays a prominent role in Canadian nationalist ideologies.<ref name="O'Connor2007">{{cite book|first=Brendon|last=O'Connor|title=Anti-Americanism: Comparative perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jq4FMb47AnEC&pg=PA59|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-84645-026-6|page=59}}</ref> A unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists.<ref name="Russell2004">{{cite book|first=Peter H.|last=Russell|title=Constitutional odyssey: can Canadians become a sovereign people?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9sTM3z4XsAC&pg=PA156|year= 2004|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-3777-0|page=156}}</ref> Alternatively [[Quebecois nationalism]] and support for maintaining [[French Canadian]] culture many of whom were supporters of the [[Quebec sovereignty movement]] during the late-20th century.<ref name="Clift1982">{{cite book|first=Dominique|last=Clift|title=Quebec nationalism in crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArsBP5Efqx4C&pg=PA106|year=1982|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-0383-0|pages=106–108}}</ref>

Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the form of conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian governments to promote Canadian cultural production.<ref name="Rowe2010">{{cite book|author=John Carlos Rowe|title=A Concise Companion to American Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkA2rdpS0JIC&pg=PA393|year= 2010|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-0924-6|page=393}}</ref> Sharing a [[Canada–United States border|large border]], a common language (for the majority), and being exposed to massive diffusions of American [[Media (communication)|media]] makes it difficult for Canada to preserve its own culture versus being assimilated to [[American culture]]. While Canada tries to maintain its cultural differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in trade arrangements such as the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) and the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement]] (USMCA).<ref name="Raboy1990">{{cite book|first=Marc|last=Raboy|title=Missed opportunities: the story of Canada's broadcasting policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sJDctK2WgHIC&pg=PA301|year= 1990|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-0775-3|page=301}}</ref>

====Foreign relations ====
{{main|Foreign relations of Canada|Canadian peacekeeping}}
[[File:UN-Marty.jpg|thumb|alt=a person in a military uniform wearing a United Nations blue helmet |[[Canadian peacekeeper]] in 1976 wearing the distinctive [[flag of Canada]] and [[Blue beret|UN blue helmet]]]]
The notion of [[peacekeeping]] is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its [[Canada–United States relations|closest ally, the United States]].<ref name="Gutiérrez-Haces 2018 s015">{{cite book | last=Gutiérrez-Haces | first=Maria Teresa | title=Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy | series=Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes &#124; International Canadian Studies Series | date=Nov 6, 2018 | pages=231–250 | publisher=University of Ottawa Press | isbn=978-0-7766-2722-9 | url=https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en | access-date=March 4, 2024 | archive-date=March 4, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065237/https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Carroll 2016 pp. 167–176">{{cite journal | last=Carroll | first=Michael K | title=Peacekeeping: Canada's past, but not its present and future? | journal=International Journal | publisher=[Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council] | volume=71 | issue=1 | year=2016 | issn=0020-7020 | jstor=44631172 | pages=167–176 | doi=10.1177/0020702015619857 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 | access-date=February 28, 2024 | archive-date=February 28, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228173148/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Anon. u211">{{cite web| title= Canada's Current Role in World| url= https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4| publisher= Environics Institute for Survey Research| access-date= 2024-03-04| archive-date= 2024-03-04| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065232/https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4| url-status= live}}</ref> [[Foreign relations of Canada|Canada's foreign policy]] of peacekeeping, [[peace enforcement]], [[peacemaking]], and [[peacebuilding]] has been intertwined with its tendency to pursue [[Multilateralism|multilateral]] and [[Internationalism (politics)|international]] solutions since the end of [[Canada in World War II|World War II]].<ref name="Edgar 2002 pp. 107–117">{{cite journal | last=Edgar | first=Alistair D. | title=Canada's changing participation in international peacekeeping and peace enforcement: What, if anything, does it mean? | journal=Canadian Foreign Policy Journal | volume=10 | issue=1 | date=2002 | issn=1192-6422 | doi=10.1080/11926422.2002.9673309 | pages=107–117}}</ref><ref name="Keating 2002 p.">{{cite book | last=Keating | first=T.F. | title=Canada and World Order: The Multilateralist Tradition in Canadian Foreign Policy | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-19-541529-2 | pages=108, 112}}</ref><ref name="Whitworth 2004 p. 91">{{cite book | last=Whitworth | first=S. | title=Men, Militarism, and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis | publisher=Lynne Rienner Pub. | series=Critical security studies | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-58826-296-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82TxOTLCMK4C&pg=PA91 | page=91 | access-date=2024-03-05 | archive-date=2024-03-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315030635/https://books.google.com/books?id=82TxOTLCMK4C&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Gabryś Soroka 2017 p. 40">{{cite book | last1=Gabryś | first1=M. | last2=Soroka | first2=T. | title=Canada as a selective power: Canada's Role and International Position after 1989 | publisher=Neriton, Wydawnictwo | series=Societas | year=2017 | isbn=978-83-7638-792-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTpyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 | page=40}}</ref>

Canada's central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid-1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the "common good" of all nations.<ref>{{cite book|author=Fred Gaffen|title=In The Eye of The Storm: A History of Canadian Peacekeeping|year=1987|publisher=Deneau & Wayne Publishers|page=[https://archive.org/details/ineyeofstormhist0000gaff/page/43 43]|isbn=978-0-88879-160-3|url=https://archive.org/details/ineyeofstormhist0000gaff/page/43}}</ref> Canada has since been engaged with the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]] (EU) in promoting its [[middle power]] status into an active role in world affairs.<ref name="Juneau Momani 2022 p. 131">{{cite book | last1=Juneau | first1=T. | last2=Momani | first2=B. | title=Middle Power in the Middle East: Canada's Foreign and Defence Policies in a Changing Region | publisher=University of Toronto Press | year=2022 | isbn=978-1-4875-2847-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=izRjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT131 | page=131}}</ref>

Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594"/><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63">{{cite book | last1=Mingst | first1=K. | last2=Karns | first2=M.P. | title=The United Nations in the Post-cold War Era, Second Edition | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-000-30674-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kk2fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63| page=63}}</ref> such as the [[Canada and the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]] or the [[Canada and the Iraq War|2003 Invasion of Iraq]].<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594"/><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63"/> Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as the [[Operation Friction|first Gulf War]], in [[Canada in the War in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Operation Mobile|Libya]].<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594"/><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63"/> The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as the [[Operation Echo|Kosovo Conflict]] and in [[Canada–Haiti relations|Haiti]].<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594">{{cite journal | last=Massie | first=Justin | title=Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions | journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=52 | issue=3 | date=2019-04-30 | issn=0008-4239 | doi=10.1017/s0008423919000040 | pages=575–594}}</ref><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63"/>

===Values===
{{Main|Canadian values}}
[[Canadian values]] are the perceived commonly shared ethical and human values of Canadians. Canadians generally value freedom and individuality, often making personal decisions based on family interests rather than collective [[Canadian identity]].<ref name="g083"/> Tolerance and sensitivity hold significant importance in [[Multiculturalism in Canada|Canada's multicultural society]], as does politeness and fairness<ref name="g083"/> Canadians typically tend to embrace liberal views on social and political issues.<ref name="g083">{{cite web | title=Understanding Canadians | website=Simon Fraser University | url=https://www.sfu.ca/students/isap/explore/culture/understanding-canadians.html | access-date=2025-01-19}}</ref>  A majority of Canadians shared the values of [[Human rights in Canada|human rights]], respect for the law and gender equality.<ref name="u440">{{cite web | title=Perceptions of shared values in Canadian society among the immigrant population | website=Statistics Canada | date=2023-01-16 | url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/o1/en/plus/2923-perceptions-shared-values-canadian-society-among-immigrant-population | access-date=2025-01-19}}</ref> Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."<ref>{{cite web|title=The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/sen/committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm|publisher=Parliament of Canada|access-date=5 January 2017|location=17.2 Universality|language=en|archive-date=January 17, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117231017/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>  

The [[List of federal political parties in Canada|major political parties]] have claimed explicitly that they uphold Canadian values, but use generalities to specify them. Historian [[Ian McKay (historian)|Ian MacKay]] argues that, thanks to the long-term political impact of "[[Upper Canada Rebellion|Rebels]], [[Socialism in Canada|Reds]], and [[The Reform Movement (Upper Canada)|Radicals]]", and allied leftist political elements, "egalitarianism, social equality, and peace... are now often simply referred to...as 'Canadian values.'"<ref name="McKay2005">{{cite book|first=Ian|last=McKay|title=Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gc_yHAW03fIC&pg=PA181|year=2005|publisher=Between The Lines|isbn=978-1-896357-97-3|page=181}}</ref> 
[[File:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (English).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A copy of the Canadian [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]]]
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national unity.<ref name="SnidermanFletcher1996">{{cite book|first1=Paul M.|last1=Sniderman|first2=Joseph F.|last2=Fletcher|first3=Philip E.|last3=Tetlock|title=The Clash of Rights: Liberty, Equality, and Legitimacy in Pluralist Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vMxB6WFUckgC&pg=PA2|year=1996|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06981-5|page=2}}</ref> The 15th Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] wrote in his ''Memoirs'' that:{{blockquote|Canada itself could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.<ref name="Trudeau1993">{{cite book|author=Pierre Elliott Trudeau|title=Memoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqsJbzlwtwsC|year=1993|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-8588-8|pages= 322–323}}</ref>}}

Numerous scholars, beginning in the 1940s with American sociologist [[Seymour Martin Lipset]]; have tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries, especially the United States.<ref>Doug Baer, et al.  "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2579349 The values of Canadians and Americans: A critical analysis and reassessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522131239/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2579349 |date=May 22, 2019 }}". ''Social Forces'' 68.3 (1990): 693–713.</ref><ref name="Lipset1991">{{cite book|author=Seymour Martin Lipset|title=Continental Divide: The Values and Institutions of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2U4s2yaaEC&pg=PA42|year=1991|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-90385-1|pages=42–50}}</ref> However, there are critics who say that such a task is practically impossible.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Neil|last1=MacDonald|title=A very short list of Canadian values: Neil Macdonald|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/neil-macdonald-kellie-leitch-values-survey-1.3759075|access-date=December 31, 2016|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=September 13, 2016|archive-date=December 31, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231171639/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/neil-macdonald-kellie-leitch-values-survey-1.3759075|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Denis Stairs (political scientist)|Denis Stairs]] a professor of political Science at [[Dalhousie University]]; links the concept of Canadian values with [[#Nationalism and protectionism|nationalism]]. [Canadians typically]...believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a distinctive set of values – ''Canadian'' values – and that those values are special in the sense of being unusually virtuous.<ref>Denis Stairs (2003),  "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40203840 Myths, Morals, and Reality in Canadian Foreign Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524190037/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40203840 |date=May 24, 2019 }}" ''International Journal'' Vol. 58, No. 22. pp. 239–256 DOI:10.2307/40203840</ref>

===Identity===
{{Main|Canadian identity}}
[[File:Stenciled identity.jpg|right|thumb|The [[maple leaf]] is the symbol most associated with [[Canadian identity]].]]

Canada's large geographic size, the presence of a significant number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by another and relatively open [[immigration policy]] have led to an extremely [[ethnic groups in Canada|diverse society]]. As a result, the issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny.<ref>MacGregor, p.39</ref>

Canada has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than [[cultural assimilation]] or a single national myth.<ref name="DeRoccoChabot2008">{{cite book|first1=David|last1=DeRocco|first2=John F.|last2=Chabot|title=From Sea to Sea to Sea: A Newcomer's Guide to Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eqg8e7LLEOYC&pg=PA13|year=2008|publisher=Full Blast Productions|isbn=978-0-9784738-4-6|page=13}}</ref> In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of a [[Culture of Quebec|French Canadian culture]] as distinguished from English Canadian culture.<ref name="FranklinBaun1995">{{cite book|first1=Daniel|last1=Franklin|first2=Michael J.|last2=Baun|title=Political culture and constitutionalism: a comparative approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61|year=1995|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-1-56324-416-2|page=61}}</ref> However, as a whole, Canada is in theory, a [[cultural mosaic]]—a collection of several regional, and ethnic subcultures.<ref name="English2004">{{cite book|first=Allan D.|last=English|title=Understanding Military Culture: A Canadian Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z1OcatV808wC&pg=PA111|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7171-6|page=111}}</ref><ref name="CarrollTom2005">{{cite book|author1=Burgess, Ann Carroll|author2=Burgess, Tom|title=Guide to Western Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TuggI-Ye_AUC&pg=PA31|year=2005|publisher=Globe Pequot Press|isbn=978-0-7627-2987-6|page=31}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

As Professor [[Alan Cairns]] noted about the '' Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms '', "the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity"'.<ref name="saunders">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/constitution/|title=The Charter at 20|last=Saunders|first=Philip|date=April 2002|website=CBC News Online|publisher=[[CBC/Radio-Canada]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060307194214/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/constitution/|archive-date=March 7, 2006|access-date=March 17, 2006}}</ref> Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in his ''Memoirs (1993)'' that "Canada itself" could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.<ref name="Trudeau 1993 p. 323">{{cite book | last=Trudeau | first=P.E. | title=Memoirs | publisher=McClelland & Stewart | year=1993 | isbn=978-0-7710-8588-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqsJbzlwtwsC&pg=PA323  | page=323}}</ref>

Political philosopher Charles Blattberg suggests that Canada is a "[[Multinational state|multinational country]]"; as all Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of the other kinds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/3084986|title="Canadian Identity" and "Canadian Identity and Language"|first=Charles|last=Blattberg|publisher=University of Montreal|year=2013|ssrn=2238333|access-date=December 12, 2019|archive-date=August 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815225536/https://www.academia.edu/3084986|url-status=live}}</ref>

Journalist and author [[Richard Gwyn (Canadian writer)|Richard Gwyn]] has suggested that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian identity.<ref name="Gwyn2008b">{{cite book|first=Richard J.|last=Gwyn|title=John A: The Man Who Made Us|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xN7jXe0H5FwC&pg=PA265|year= 2008|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-679-31476-9|page=265}}</ref> Journalist and professor [[Andrew Cohen (journalist)|Andrew Cohen]] wrote in 2007:
{{Blockquote |The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is as elusive as the [[Bigfoot|Sasquatch]] and [[Ogopogo]]. It has animated—and frustrated—generations of statesmen, historians, writers, artists, philosophers, and the National Film Board&nbsp;... Canada resists easy definition.<ref name="Cohen2008zxc">{{cite book|first=Andrew|last=Cohen|title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glcBcaMC6doC&pg=PA3|year= 2008|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-2286-9|pages=3–}}</ref>}}

Canada's 15th prime minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] in regards to uniformity stated:

{{Blockquote |Uniformity is neither desirable nor possible in a country the size of Canada. We should not even be able to agree upon the kind of Canadian to choose as a model, let alone persuade most people to emulate it. There are few policies potentially more disastrous for Canada than to tell all Canadians that they must be alike. There is no such thing as a model or ideal Canadian. What could be more absurd than the concept of an "all-Canadian" boy or girl? A society which emphasizes uniformity is one which creates intolerance and hate.<ref name="Hines2018">{{cite book|first=Pamela|last=Hines|title=The Trumping of America: A Wake Up Call to the Free World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yFnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|date=August 2018|publisher=FriesenPress|isbn=978-1-5255-0934-6|page=180}} -Pierre Elliott Trudeau, as cited in The Essential Trudeau, ed. Ron Graham. (pp.16 – 20)</ref>}}

In 2015, Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]] defined the country as the world's first [[Postnationalism|postnational state]]: "There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foran |first=Charles |date=2017-01-04 |title=The Canada experiment: is this the world's first 'postnational' country?|work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/04/the-canada-experiment-is-this-the-worlds-first-postnational-country |access-date=2023-12-04 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties between English Canadians and the [[British Empire]], resulting in a gradual political process towards complete independence from the imperial power; and finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the United States.<ref name="Marger2011">{{cite book|first=Martin N.|last=Marger|title=Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aW4jOatwxkwC&pg=PA433|year= 2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-18638-8|page=433}}</ref> Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values.<ref name="Kennett1998">{{cite book|author=Steven Alexander Kennett|title=Securing the Social Union: A Commentary on the Decentralized Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_fiXKP7ZPEC&pg=PA6|year=1998|publisher=IIGR, Queen's University|isbn=978-0-88911-767-9|page=6}}</ref>

In 2013, nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were for [[History of Canada|Canadian history]] (70%), the [[Canadian Armed Forces|armed forces]] (64%), the [[Healthcare in Canada|health care system]] (64%), and the [[Constitution of Canada|Constitution]] (63%). However, pride in Canada’s political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements.<ref name="d680">{{cite web | title=Highlights | website=Statistics Canada | date=2015-10-01 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-652-x/2015005/hl-fs-eng.htm | access-date=2025-03-02}} Text was copied from this source, which is available under the [https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/reference/copyright Statistics Canada Open Licence]</ref>

==== Inter-provincial interactions ====
{{Main|Western alienation|Distinct society}}
[[File:Calgary political protest 1.JPG|thumb|Demonstrators in [[Calgary]], Alberta, protesting the coalition of opposition parties attempting to take control of Parliament during the [[2008 Canadian parliamentary dispute]]]]
[[Western alienation]] is the notion that the [[Western Canada|western provinces]] have historically been alienated, and in extreme cases excluded, from mainstream Canadian political affairs in favour of [[Eastern Canada]] or more specifically the [[central Canada|central provinces]].<ref name="Wesley2011o">{{cite book|first=Jared J.|last=Wesley|title=Code Politics: Campaigns and Cultures on the Canadian Prairies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_c5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2011|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-2077-6|pages=21–23}}</ref> Western alienation claims that these latter two are politically represented, and economically favoured, more significantly than the former, which has given rise to the sentiment of alienation among many western Canadians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4524787/western-canadians-alienation-ipsos/|title=Western Canadians still feel more connected to their province than to country as a whole: Ipsos – Globalnews.ca|date=October 8, 2018|website=globalnews.ca|access-date=May 12, 2019|archive-date=May 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512070849/https://globalnews.ca/news/4524787/western-canadians-alienation-ipsos/|url-status=live}}</ref> Likewise; the [[Quebec sovereignty movement]] that lead to the [[Québécois nation motion|Québécois nation]] and the province of Quebec being recognized as a "[[distinct society]]" within Canada, highlights the sharp divisions between the Anglo and Francophone population.<ref name="Blake2007">{{cite book|first=Raymond B.|last=Blake|title=Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian Mulroney|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6KiHZe3KVgC&pg=PA265|year=2007|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-3214-4|pages=265–267}}</ref>

Though more than half of Canadians live in just two provinces (Ontario and Quebec), each province is largely self-contained due to provincial economic self-sufficiency. Only 15 percent of Canadians live in a different province from where they were born, and only 10 percent go to another province for university. Canada has always been like this, and stands in sharp contrast to the United States' internal mobility which is much higher. For example 30 percent live in a different state from where they were born, and 30 percent go away for university. [[Scott Gilmore]] in ''[[Maclean's]]'' argues that "Canada is a nation of strangers", in the sense that for most individuals, the rest of Canada outside their province is little-known.  Another factor is the cost of internal travel. Intra-Canadian airfares are high—it is cheaper and more common to visit the United States than to visit another province. Gilmore argues that the mutual isolation makes it difficult to muster national responses to major national issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.macleans.ca/opinion/canada-a-nation-of-strangers/?sfi=1c19d41d13bc01bd139ed1efb9272ccf|title=Canada: A nation of strangers|publisher=[[Maclean's]]|first=Scott|last=Gilmore|quote=Canada: A nation of strangers: Canadians don't often move out of their birth province. We vacation elsewhere. We barely know each other. We're now unable to muster national responses to big issues|date=May 8, 2019|author-link=Scott Gilmore|access-date=July 3, 2019|archive-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814013216/https://www.macleans.ca/opinion/canada-a-nation-of-strangers/?sfi=1c19d41d13bc01bd139ed1efb9272ccf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Humour===
{{Main|Canadian humour}}
[[Canadian humour]] is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are several traditions in Canadian humour in both [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Quebec French|French]].<ref name = Scobie>Scobie, Stephen [http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/humorous-writing-in-english/ "Humorous Writing in English"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925132611/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/humorous-writing-in-english/ |date=September 25, 2017 }}. ''The Canadian Encyclopedia''. Retrieved on: April 23, 2010.</ref><ref name = Lacombe>Lacombe, Michelle [http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/humorous-writing-in-french/ "Humorous Writing in French"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901122536/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/humorous-writing-in-french/ |date=September 1, 2017 }}. ''The Canadian Encyclopedia''. Retrieved on: April 23, 2010.</ref> While these traditions are distinct and at times very different, there are common themes that relate to Canadians' shared history and [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] situation in the Western Hemisphere and the world. Various trends can be noted in Canadian comedy. One trend is the portrayal of a "typical" Canadian family in an ongoing radio or television series.<ref name="Owram1997">{{cite book|first=Doug|last=Owram|title=Born at the right time: a history of the baby-boom generation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKdw6Y7_lksC&pg=PA91|year= 1997|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8086-8|page=91}}</ref> Other trends include outright absurdity,<ref name="Boberg2010">{{cite book|first=Charles|last=Boberg|title=The English Language in Canada: Status, History and Comparative Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uW2rM_6I3gMC&pg=PA45|year= 2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87432-8|page=45}}</ref> and political and cultural satire.<ref name="New2002ty">{{cite book|first=William H.|last=New|title=Encyclopedia of literature in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA516|year=2002|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2|page=516}}</ref> Irony, parody, satire, and self-deprecation are arguably the primary characteristics of Canadian humour.<ref name="Nieguth2015">{{cite book|first=Tim|last=Nieguth|title=The Politics of Popular Culture: Negotiating Power, Identity, and Place|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMjMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|year=2015|publisher=MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-9685-6|page=188}}</ref><ref name="Tinic2005">{{cite book|author=Serra Ayse Tinic|title=On location: Canada's television industry in a global market|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKbwixLBVeAC&pg=PA131|year= 2005|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8548-1|page=131}}</ref><ref name="Brooks2002">{{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Brooks|title=The challenge of cultural pluralism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHLD90pXWYEC&pg=PA45|year=2002|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97001-7|page=45}}</ref>

[[File:Festival Juste pour rire de Montréal, Québec.jpg|thumb|left|[[Just for Laughs|Just for Laughs Festival]] in [[Montreal]], Québec, at the [[Théâtre Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis Theatre]]]]

The beginnings of Canadian national radio comedy date to the late 1930s with the debut of ''[[The Happy Gang]]'', a long-running weekly variety show that was regularly sprinkled with corny jokes in between tunes.<ref name="Murray2003">{{cite book|first=Gil|last=Murray|title=Nothing on but the radio: a look back at radio in Canada and how it changed the world|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd-MhtgwHE0C&pg=PA39|year=2003|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-1-55002-479-1|page=39}}</ref> Canadian television comedy begins with [[Wayne and Shuster]], a sketch comedy duo who performed as a comedy team during the Second World War, and moved their act to radio in 1946 before moving on to television.<ref name="Weingrad">{{cite book|author=Doug Hill, Jeff Weingrad|title=Saturday Night: A Backstage History of Saturday Night Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkUn4S_OlngC&pg=PT27|publisher=Untreed Reads|isbn=978-1-61187-218-7|page=27|date=December 15, 2011}}</ref> ''[[Second City Television]]'', otherwise known as ''[[Second City Television|SCTV]]'', ''[[Royal Canadian Air Farce]]'', ''[[This Hour Has 22 Minutes]]'',  ''[[The Kids in the Hall (TV series)|The Kids in the Hall]]'', ''[[Trailer Park Boys]]'', ''[[Corner Gas]]''  and more recently ''[[Schitt's Creek]]'' are regarded as television shows which were very influential on the development of Canadian humour.<ref name="Charney2005">{{cite book|first=Maurice|last=Charney|title=Comedy: a geographic and historical guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Og4ntxFQP2cC&pg=PA210|year=2005|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32714-8|pages=210–213}}</ref> [[List of Canadian comedians|Canadian comedians]] have had great success in the film industry and are amongst the most recognized in the world.<ref name="Charney2005"/>

[[Humber College]] in Toronto and the École nationale de l'humour in Montreal offer post-secondary programmes in comedy writing and performance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.culturalhrc.ca/membership/members-e.asp|title=Organisation Members|publisher=Cultural Human Resources Council|year=2010|access-date=February 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113153400/http://www.culturalhrc.ca/membership/members-e.asp|archive-date=November 13, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Montreal]] is also home to the bilingual (English and French) [[Just for Laughs]] festival and to the [[Just for Laughs Museum]], a bilingual, international museum of comedy.<ref name="Colombo2001">{{cite book|author=John Robert Colombo|title=1000 questions about Canada: places, people, things, and ideas : a question-and-answer book on Canadian facts and culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmRI6_3da2sC&pg=PA213|year=2001|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-0-88882-232-1|page=213}}</ref> Canada has a national television channel, [[The Comedy Network]], devoted to comedy. Many Canadian cities feature comedy clubs and showcases, most notable, [[The Second City]] branch in Toronto (originally housed at [[The Old Fire Hall]]) and the [[Yuk Yuk's]] national chain.<ref name="Stebbins1990o">{{cite book|first=Robert A.|last=Stebbins|title=The laugh-makers: stand-up comedy as art, business, and life-style|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yBWQnGpy84C&pg=PA25|year= 1990|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-0735-7|page=25}}</ref> [[The Canadian Comedy Awards]] were founded in 1999 by the Canadian Comedy Foundation for Excellence, a not-for-profit organization.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://canadiancomedy.ca/history.php|year=2012|publisher=The Canadian Comedy Awards & Festival|access-date=February 3, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201060318/http://canadiancomedy.ca/history.php|archive-date=February 1, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>