Editing Crystallographic defect (section)

==Point defects==
Point defects are defects that occur only at or around a single lattice point. They are not extended in space in any dimension. Strict limits for how small a point defect is are generally not defined explicitly. However, these defects typically involve at most a few extra or missing atoms. Larger defects in an ordered structure are usually considered [[dislocation]] loops. For historical reasons, many point defects, especially in ionic crystals, are called ''centers'': for example a vacancy in many ionic solids is called a luminescence center, a color center, or [[F-center]]. These dislocations permit ionic transport through crystals leading to electrochemical reactions. These are frequently specified using [[Kröger–Vink notation]].

*[[Vacancy defect]]s are lattice sites which would be occupied in a perfect crystal, but are vacant. If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom. The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy. In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy, because they experience attraction from atoms in the surroundings. A vacancy (or pair of vacancies in an ionic solid) is sometimes called a [[Schottky defect]].
*[[Interstitial defect]]s are atoms that occupy a site in the crystal structure at which [[interstitial site|there is usually not an atom]]. They are generally high energy configurations. Small atoms (mostly impurities) in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as [[hydrogen]] in [[palladium]].

[[Image:defecttypes.png|right|thumb|Schematic illustration of some simple point defect types in a monatomic solid]]

*A nearby pair of a vacancy and an interstitial is often called a [[Frenkel defect]] or Frenkel pair. This is caused when an ion moves into an interstitial site and creates a vacancy.

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*Due to fundamental limitations of material purification methods, materials are never 100% pure, which by definition induces defects in crystal structure. In the case of an impurity, the atom is often incorporated at a regular atomic site in the crystal structure.  This is neither a vacant site nor is the atom on an interstitial site and it is called a '''substitutional defect'''. The atom is not supposed to be anywhere in the crystal, and is thus an impurity. In some cases where the radius of the substitutional atom (ion) is substantially smaller than that of the atom (ion) it is replacing, its equilibrium position can be shifted away from the lattice site. These types of substitutional defects are often referred to as [[off-center ions]]. There are two different types of substitutional defects: Isovalent substitution and aliovalent substitution. Isovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of the same oxidation state as the ion it is replacing. Aliovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of a different oxidation state than the ion it is replacing. Aliovalent substitutions change the overall charge within the ionic compound, but the ionic compound must be neutral. Therefore, a charge compensation mechanism is required. Hence either one of the metals is partially or fully oxidised or reduced, or ion vacancies are created.
*'''Antisite defects'''<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=10058001|year=1995|last1=Mattila|first1=T|last2=Nieminen|first2=RM|title=Direct Antisite Formation in Electron Irradiation of GaAs|volume=74|issue=14|pages=2721–2724|journal=Physical Review Letters|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.2721|bibcode=1995PhRvL..74.2721M|url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/17579}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.54.8527|pmid=9984528|title=Point defects and their reactions in electron-irradiated GaAs investigated by optical absorption spectroscopy|year=1996|last1=Hausmann|first1=H.|last2=Pillukat|first2=A.|last3=Ehrhart|first3=P.|journal=Physical Review B|volume=54|pages=8527–8539|bibcode = 1996PhRvB..54.8527H|issue=12 }}</ref> occur in an ordered alloy or compound when atoms of different type exchange positions. For example, some alloys have a regular structure in which every other atom is a different species; for illustration assume that type A atoms sit on the corners of a cubic lattice, and type B atoms sit in the center of the cubes. If one cube has an A atom at its center, the atom is on a site usually occupied by a B atom, and is thus an antisite defect. This is neither a vacancy nor an interstitial, nor an impurity.
*Topological defects are regions in a crystal where the normal chemical bonding environment is topologically different from the surroundings. For instance, in a perfect sheet of graphite ([[graphene]]) all atoms are in rings containing six atoms. If the sheet contains regions where the number of atoms in a ring is different from six, while the total number of atoms remains the same, a topological defect has formed. An example is the [[Stone Wales defect]] in nanotubes, which consists of two adjacent 5-membered and two 7-membered atom rings.

[[Image:compounddefects.png|right|thumb|Schematic illustration of defects in a compound solid, using GaAs as an example.]]

*[[Amorphous]] solids may contain defects. These are naturally somewhat hard to define, but sometimes their nature can be quite easily understood. For instance, in ideally bonded amorphous [[silica]] all Si atoms have 4 bonds to O atoms and all O atoms have 2 bonds to Si atom. Thus e.g. an O atom with only one Si bond (a [[dangling bond]]) can be considered a defect in silica.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/00107510601088156|title=Luminescence of ion-irradiated α-quartz|year=2006|last1=Lieb|first1=Klaus-Peter|last2=Keinonen|first2=Juhani|journal=Contemporary Physics|volume=47|pages=305–331|bibcode = 2006ConPh..47..305L|issue=5 |s2cid=119348046}}</ref> Moreover, defects can also be defined in amorphous solids based on empty or densely packed local atomic neighbourhoods, and the properties of such 'defects' can be shown to be similar to normal vacancies and interstitials in crystals.<ref name="Ash12">{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/nl301554k|title=Irradiation Induced Grain Boundary Flow—A New Creep Mechanism at the Nanoscale|issue=8|pages=4084–9|year=2012|last1=Ashkenazy|first1=Yinon|last2=Averback|first2=Robert S.|journal=Nano Letters|volume=12|pmid=22775230|bibcode = 2012NanoL..12.4084A }}</ref><ref name="May03" /><ref name="Nor05">{{cite journal|title=Strings and interstitials in liquids, glasses and crystals|journal=Europhys. Lett.|year=2005|volume=71|pages=625–631|doi=10.1209/epl/i2005-10132-1|issue=4|last1=Nordlund|first1=K|last2=Ashkenazy|first2=Y|last3=Averback|first3=R. S|last4=Granato|first4=A. V|bibcode = 2005EL.....71..625N |s2cid=250805987 }}</ref>
*Complexes can form between different kinds of point defects. For example, if a vacancy encounters an impurity, the two may bind together if the impurity is too large for the lattice. Interstitials can form 'split interstitial' or 'dumbbell' structures where two atoms effectively share an atomic site, resulting in neither atom actually occupying the site.<ref>
{{cite journal
| author=Hannes Raebiger
| title=Theory of defect complexes in insulators
| journal=Physical Review B
| volume=82 | issue=7
| pages=073104 | year=2010
| doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.82.073104
| bibcode=2010PhRvB..82g3104R}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite journal
| author=Hannes Raebiger, Hikaru Nakayama, and Takeshi Fujita
| title=Control of defect binding and magnetic interaction energies in dilute magnetic semiconductors by charge state manipulation
| journal=Journal of Applied Physics
| volume=115 | issue=1
| pages=012008 | year=2014
| doi=10.1063/1.4838016
| bibcode=2014JAP...115a2008R| doi-access=free
}}
</ref>