Editing Crowd psychology (section)

==Origins==
According to his biological theory of criminology suggests that criminality is inherited and that someone “born criminal” could be identified by the way they look<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=Cesare Lombroso: Theory of Crime, Criminal Man, and Atavism |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/lombroso-theory-of-crime-criminal-man-and-atavism.html |access-date=2024-07-28 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Enrico Ferri (criminologist)|Enrico Ferri]] expressed his view of crime as degeneration more profound than insanity, for in most insane persons the primitive moral sense has survived the wreck of their intelligence. Along similar lines were the remarks of [[Benedickt]], [[Sergi]] and [[Marro]]. A response from the French, who put forward an environmental theory of human psychology, M. Anguilli called attention to the importance of the influence of the social environment upon crime. Professor [[Alexandre Lacassagne]] thought that the atavistic and degenerative theories as held by the Italian school were exaggerations and false interpretations of the facts, and that the important factor was the social environment."<ref name="Reicher, Stephen page 185">Reicher, Stephen. "The Psychology of Crowd Dynamics", ''Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Group Processes''. ed. Michael A. Hogg & R. Scott Tindale. Blackwell Publishers Inc. Malden, Mass. page 185.</ref>{{Psychology sidebar}}
In Paris during 10–17 August 1889, the Italian school received a stronger rebuke of their biological theories during the 2nd International Congress of Criminal Anthropology. A radical divergence in the views between the Italian and the French schools was reflected in the proceedings.
: "Professor Lombroso laid stress upon [[epilepsy]] in connection with his theory of the 'born criminal'. Professor [[Léonce Pierre Manouvrier]] characterized Lombroso's theory as nothing but the exploded science of [[phrenology]]. The anomalies observed by Lombroso were met with in honest men as well as criminals, Manouvrier claimed, and there is no physical difference between them. [[Raffaele Garofalo|Baron Raffaele Garofalo]], Drill, Alexandre Lacassagne and Benedikt opposed Lombroso's theories in whole or in part. Pugliese found the cause of crime in the failure of the criminal to adapt himself to his social surroundings, and Benedikt, with whom Tarde agreed, held that physical defects were not marks of the criminal qua criminal."<ref>Edward Lindsey, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1133200 "The International Congress of Criminal Anthropology: A Review"], ''Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology'', Vol. 1, No. 4 (Nov., 1910), pp.&nbsp;578–583. Northwestern University. Retrieved 24 May 2013.</ref> It is in this context that you have a debate between [[:it:Scipio Sighele|Scipio Sighele]], an Italian lawyer and Gabriel Tarde, a French magistrate on how to determine criminal responsibility in the crowd and hence who to arrest. (Sighele, 1892; Tarde, 1890, 1892, 1901)<ref name="Reicher, Stephen page 185"/> Both thinkers had published early studies on this matter (Sighele wrote "The Criminal Crowd", and Tarde "La criminalité comparée".)

Earlier, literature on crowds and crowd behavior had appeared as early as 1841, with the publication of [[Charles Mackay (author)|Charles Mackay]]'s book ''[[Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds]]''.<ref name=Ref.4>{{cite book |last=Forsyth |first=D. R. |title=Handbook of Psychology |year=2012 |edition=Second |author-link=Social Influence and Group Behavior}}</ref> The attitude towards crowds underwent an adjustment with the publication of [[Hippolyte Taine]]'s six-volume ''The Origins of Contemporary France'' (1875). In particular Taine's work helped to change the opinions of his contemporaries on the actions taken by the crowds during the 1789 Revolution. Many Europeans held him in great esteem. While it is difficult to directly link his works to crowd behavior, it may be said that his thoughts stimulated further study of crowd behavior. However, it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that scientific interest in the field gained momentum. French physician and anthropologist [[Gustave Le Bon]] became its most-influential theorist.<ref name="Ref.2"/><ref name=Ref.1>{{cite book |editor=Alan E. Kazdin, editor in chief |title=Encyclopedia of psychology |year=2000 |publisher=American Psychological Association |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=1-55798-650-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofps0000unse/page/374 374]–377 |author1=Reicher, Stephen |author-link=Crowd Behavior |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofps0000unse }}</ref><ref name=Ref.5>{{cite journal |last=Triandis |first=H. C. |author-link1=Harry C. Triandis |title=Theoretical Framework for Mass Psychology |journal=Contemporary Psychology |year=1987 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=123–124|doi=10.1037/026751 }}</ref><ref>Nye, R. A. (1975). ''The origins of crowd psychology''. London: Sage.</ref><ref>Barrows, Susanna (1981). "Distorting mirrors – Visions of the crowd". New Haven: Yale University Press.</ref><ref>Van Ginneken, Jaap (1992). ''Crowds, psychology and politics 1871–1899''. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref>