Editing Contras (section)

==History==

===Origins===
The Contras were not a monolithic group, but a combination of three distinct elements of Nicaraguan society:<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 29"/>

* Ex-guardsmen of the [[Nicaraguan National Guard]] and other right-wing figures who had fought for Nicaragua's ex-dictator [[Somoza]]<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 29">Lee et al. 1987, p. 29</ref>—these later were especially found in the military wing of the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force]] (FDN).<ref>"The contras are made up of a combination of: ex-National Guardsmen (especially the military wing of the FDN)" As seen at: Gill 1984, p. 204</ref> Remnants of the Guard later formed groups such as the [[Fifteenth of September Legion]], the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, and the National Army of Liberation.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Initially however, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua.<ref>Dickey, Christopher. With the Contras, A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. Simon & Schuster, 1985.</ref>
* Anti-Somozistas who had supported the revolution but felt betrayed by the Sandinista government<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 29"/> – e.g. [[Édgar Chamorro]], prominent member of the political directorate of the FDN,<ref>"The contras are made up of a combination of:&nbsp;... anti-Sandinista opponents of ex-dictator Somoza (some of the members of the FDN political directorate eg Messrs. Chamorro and Cruz)" As seen at: Gill 1984, p. 204</ref> or [[José Francisco Cardenal]], who had briefly served in the Council of State before leaving Nicaragua out of disagreement with the Sandinista government's policies and founding the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Union|Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN)]], an opposition group of Nicaraguan exiles in Miami.<ref>International Court of Justice (IV) (1986), p. 446</ref> Another example are the [[MILPAS]] (Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas), peasant [[militia]]s led by disillusioned Sandinista veterans from the northern mountains. Founded by [[Pedro Joaquín González]] (known as "Dimas"), the Milpistas were also known as {{lang|es|chilotes}} (green corn). Even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980–1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of {{lang|es|campesino}} ([[peasant]]) highlanders and rural workers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Sam |title=Comandos: The CIA and Nicaragua's Contra Rebels |year=1991 |publisher=Henry Holt |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-1475-4 |oclc=23974023 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comandoscianicar00dill/page/49 49–56] |url=https://archive.org/details/comandoscianicar00dill/page/49 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Horton |first=Lynn |title=Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994 |year=1998 |publisher=Ohio University Center for International Studies |location=Athens |isbn=978-0-89680-204-9 |oclc=39157572 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peasantsinarmswa00hort/page/95 95–117] |url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsinarmswa00hort/page/95 }}</ref><ref>Padro-Maurer, R. ''The Contras 1980–1989, a Special Kind of Politics''. NY: Praeger Publishers, 1990.</ref><ref>Brown, Timothy C. ''The Real Contra War, Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua''. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.</ref>
*Nicaraguans who had avoided direct involvement in the revolution but opposed the Sandinistas.<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 29"/>

===Main groups===
[[File:Frente Sur Contras 1987.jpg|thumb|Contra Commandos from [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force|FDN]] and ARDE Frente Sur in the [[Nueva Guinea]] region of [[Nicaragua]] in 1987]]
[[File:Smoke break el serrano 1987.jpg|thumb|Members of ARDE Frente Sur]]
The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and [[Argentine intelligence]], seeking to unify the anti-Sandinista cause before initiating large-scale aid, persuaded 15 September Legion, the UDN and several former smaller groups to merge in September 1981 as the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force]] (''Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense'', FDN).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/cocaine/contra-story/orgs.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613051424/https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/general-reports-1/cocaine/contra-story/orgs.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 June 2007 |title=Contra Organizations: The Contra Story – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2014-08-18}}</ref> Although the FDN had its roots in two groups made up of former National Guardsmen (of the Somoza regime), its joint political directorate was led by businessman and former anti-Somoza activist [[Adolfo Calero|Adolfo Calero Portocarrero]].<ref>"Although Calero had opposed Somoza, the FDN had its roots in two insurgent groups made up of former National Guardsmen" As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 29</ref> [[Édgar Chamorro]] later stated that there was strong opposition within the UDN against working with the Guardsmen and that the merging only took place because of insistence by the CIA.<ref>"The UDN, including Cardenal, initially opposed any linkage with the Guardsmen. The CIA, and high-ranking United States Government officials, insisted that we merge with the Guardsmen. Lt. General Vernon Walters, then a special assistant to the United States Secretary of State (and formerly Deputy Director of the CIA) met with Cardenal to encourage him to accept the CIA's proposal. We were well aware of the crimes the Guardsmen had committed against the Nicaraguan people while in the service of President Somoza and we wanted nothing to do with them. However, we recognized that without help from the United States Government we had no chance of removing the Sandinistas from power, so we eventually acceded to the CIA's, and General Walters', insistence that we join forces with the Guardsmen. Some UDN members resigned because they would not associate themselves with the National Guard under any circumstances, but Cardenal and I and others believed the CIA's assurances that we, the civilians, would control the Guardsmen in the new organization that was to be created." As seen at: International Court of Justice (IV) 1986, p. 446</ref>

Based in [[Honduras]], Nicaragua's northern neighbor, under the command of former [[Guardia Nacional (Nicaragua)|National Guard]] Colonel [[Enrique Bermúdez]], the new FDN commenced to draw in other smaller insurgent forces in the north.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized by the U.S.,<ref>"On the basis of the available information, the Court is not able to satisfy itself that the Respondent State 'created' the contra force in Nicaragua, but holds it established that it largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized the FDN, one element of the force." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VII (4)</ref> it emerged as the largest and most active contra group.<ref>"The largest and most active of these groups, which later came to be known as&nbsp;... (FDN)". As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 29</ref>

In April 1982, [[Edén Pastora]] (''Comandante Cero''), one of the heroes in the fight against Somoza, organized the Sandinista Revolutionary Front (FRS) – embedded in the [[Democratic Revolutionary Alliance]] (ARDE)<ref name="Williams">{{Cite news| last = Williams| first = Adam| title = Edén Pastora: A wanted man| work = [[The Tico Times]]| date = 26 November 2010| url = http://www.ticotimes.net/News/Top-Story/News/Eden-Pastora-A-wanted-man_Friday-November-26-2010| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101215060509/http://www.ticotimes.net/News/Top-Story/News/Eden-Pastora-A-wanted-man_Friday-November-26-2010| archive-date = 15 December 2010}}</ref> – and declared war on the Sandinista government.<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 32">Lee et al. 1987, p. 32</ref> Himself a former Sandinista who had held several high posts in the government, he had resigned abruptly in 1981 and defected,<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 32"/> believing that the newly found power had corrupted the Sandinistas' original ideas.<ref name="Williams"/> A popular and charismatic leader, Pastora initially saw his group develop quickly.<ref name="Lee et al. 1987, p. 32"/> He confined himself to operate in the southern part of Nicaragua;<ref>"He insisted on operating in the southern part of Nicaragua." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 32</ref> after a press conference he was holding on [[La Penca bombing|30 May 1984 was bombed]], he "voluntarily withdrew" from the contra struggle.<ref name="Williams"/>

A third force, Misurasata, appeared among the [[Miskito people|Miskito]], [[Sumo (people)|Sumo]] and Rama [[Amerindian]] peoples of Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, who in December 1981 found themselves in conflict with the authorities following the government's efforts to nationalize [[Indigenous people of the Americas|Indian]] land. In the course of this conflict, forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians to relocation centers in the interior of the country and subsequent burning of some villages took place.<ref>The Americas Watch Committee. "Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986" (print), Americas Watch, February 1987.</ref> The Misurasata movement split in 1983, with the breakaway Misura group of [[Stedman Fagoth Muller]] allying itself more closely with the FDN, and the rest accommodating themselves with the Sandinistas: on 8 December 1984 a ceasefire agreement known as the Bogota Accord was signed by Misurasata and the Nicaraguan government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bogota Accord |url=http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/nic2.pdf |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=Ulster University}}</ref> A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance.<ref>[http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/mrginicaragua39wg.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916224139/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/info-ngos/mrginicaragua39wg.pdf|date=16 September 2012}}</ref>

===Unity efforts===
U.S. officials were active in attempting to unite the Contra groups. In June 1985 most of the groups reorganized as the [[United Nicaraguan Opposition]] (UNO), under the leadership of [[Adolfo Calero]], [[Arturo Cruz]] and [[Alfonso Robelo]], all originally supporters of the anti-Somoza revolution. After UNO's dissolution early in 1987, the [[Nicaraguan Resistance]] (RN) was organized along similar lines in May.