Editing Common Era (section)

== History ==
=== Origins ===
{{See also|Anno Domini}}
Around the year 525, the Christian monk [[Dionysius Exiguus]] devised the principle of taking  the moment that he believed to be the [[Date of birth of Jesus#According to Dionysius|date of the incarnation of Jesus]] to be the point from which years are numbered (the [[epoch]]) of the Christian [[ecclesiastical calendar]].<ref name=Pedersen /><ref>Doggett, L.E., (1992), [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html "Calendars"] in Seidelmann, P.K., ''The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'', Sausalito CA: University Science Books, 2.1</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BW_1mt4oebQC&q=jesus+birth+year+before&pg=PA686 686]|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |first=Geoffrey W. |last=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1995 |isbn= 978-0-8028-3781-3}}</ref> Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as "{{Lang|la|Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi}}" (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).<ref name=Pedersen />{{rp|52}} He did this to replace the [[Era of the Martyrs]] system (then used for some [[date of Easter|Easter tables]]) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.<ref name=Pedersen />{{rp|50}}

This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by [[Bede]] in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed to have been  the year of birth of Jesus,{{efn|Bede wrote of the Incarnation of Jesus, but treated it as synonymous with birth.<ref> Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L, (2003), ''The Oxford Companion to the Year'', Oxford University Press, 778.</ref>}} without a [[year zero]].{{efn|As noted in [[History of zero|History of the zero]], the use of zero in Western civilization was uncommon before the twelfth century.}}

=== Vulgar Era ===
{{wikt|vulgar}}
[[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571{{ndash}}1630), the German [[astronomer]], [[German mathematician|mathematician]], [[astrologer]], [[Natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] and writer on music<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jeans |first=Susi |author-link=Susi Jeans |others=Revised by [[H. Floris Cohen]] |year=2013 |orig-year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Kepler [Keppler], Johannes |chapter=Kepler &#91;Keppler&#93;, Johannes |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |access-date=26 September 2021 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000014903 }} {{Grove Music subscription}}</ref>]]
The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as "Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the [[regnal year]] (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Weatherall| first = Claire| title = Library: Archival Skills: Historical dates| access-date = 21 September 2024| url = https://libguides.hull.ac.uk/archival-skills/historical-dates |website=University of Hull |date = 18 May 2023}}</ref> (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations.<ref name="OED vulgar"/>)

The first use of the Latin term {{lang|la|anno aerae nostrae vulgaris}}{{Efn|name=VulgarisAerae0|In Latin, 'Common Era' is written as {{lang|la|Aera Vulgaris}}. It also occasionally appears, in Latin declination, as {{lang|la|æræ vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|aerae vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|aeram vulgarem}}, {{lang|la|anni vulgaris}}, {{lang|la|vulgaris aerae Christianae}}, and {{lang|la|anni vulgatae nostrae aerae Christianas}}.}} may be in a 1615 book by [[Johannes Kepler]].<ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> Kepler uses it again, as {{lang|la|ab Anno vulgaris aerae}}, in a 1616 table of [[Ephemeris|ephemerides]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides novae motuum caelestium, ab Ānno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII en observationibus potissimum Tychonis Brahei hypothesibus physicis, et tabulis Rudolphinis... |first=Johann |last=Kepler |publisher=Plancus |year=1616 <!--|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kElSQAACAAJ&q=vulgaris+aerae |url-status=dead --> }}</ref> and again, as {{lang|la|ab anno vulgaris aerae}}, in 1617.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium, ab anno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII[-XXXVI]... |quote=Part 3 has title: Tomi L Ephemeridvm Ioannis Kepleri pars tertia, complexa annos à M.DC.XXIX. in M.DC.XXXVI. In quibus & tabb. Rudolphi jam perfectis, et sociâ operâ clariss. viri dn. Iacobi Bartschii ... Impressa Sagani Silesiorvm, in typographeio Ducali, svmptibvs avthoris, anno M.DC.XXX. |author-link=Johannes Kepler|first1=Johannes |last1=Keppler |first2=Jakob |last2=Bartsch |publisher=Johannes Plancus |year=1617 |trans-title= (per 1635 English edition): ''New Ephemerids for the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeeres of the Vulgar Era 1617–1636''}} (His third use of "vulgaris aerae" (Latin for Common Era) (1617))</ref> An English edition of that book from 1635 may contain the earliest known use of "Vulgar Era" in its title page.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633&nbsp;... |author1=Johann Kepler |author2=Adriaan Vlacq |year=1635}}</ref>{{efn|As England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar [[Calendar (New Style) Act 1750|until 1752]], "vulgar" dates were determined according to the [[Julian calendar]].}} A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,{{nbsp}}6".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Harmony of the Evangelists |editor-first=John |editor-last=Le Clerc |location=London |publisher=Sam Buckley |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jakGAAAAQAAJ&q=%22vulgar+era%22&pg=PA5-IA4 5] |year=1701 |quote=Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6}}</ref>

The [[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as "Christian era").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vulgarera |title=Merriam Webster Online entry for ''Vulgar Era'' | access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref>{{efn|The probable source is a 1716 book in English by Dean [[Humphrey Prideaux]] which refers to, "...the vulgar Æra of Christ's incarnation and not from the true time of it."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations |author=Humphrey Prideaux, D.D.|author-link=Humphrey Prideaux |location=London 
|page=[https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_the-old-and-new-testamen_prideaux-humphrey_1716/page/n7/mode/1up? ii] |volume=1|year=1716 |edition=Second}}</ref> This citation is given in the 1933 edition of Oxford English Dictionary but without any assertion of first use.<ref name="OED vulgar">{{cite dictionary |title=Oxford English Dictionary |page=326 |entry=Vulgar |entry-url=https://archive.org/details/the-oxford-english-dictionary-1933-all-volumes/The%20Oxford%20English%20Dictionary%20Volume%2012%20-%20Variant/page/n329/mode/1up? |volume=12 |date=1933}}</ref>}} 

The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase {{lang|la|annus aerae christianae}} on the title page of a 1584 theology book, {{lang|la|De Eucharistica controuersia}}.<ref>{{cite book |title={{lang|fr|Lire demain}}; Reading tomorrow  |chapter=Common Era 2.0 |last=Clivaz |first=Claire |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=EbtYKIc0_Q4C&pg=PA38 38] |quote=... the expression "Christian era" appears in Latin in a 1584 theology book ([[Johann Jakob Grynaeus|Grynaeus]] and Beumler 1584) |publisher= EPFL Press |date=2012 |isbn=9782889141494}}</ref> In 1649, the Latin phrase {{lang|la|annus æræ Christianæ}} appeared in the title of an English almanac.<ref>{{cite book |title=Speculum uranicum, anni æræ Christianæ, 1649, or, An almanack and prognosication for the year of our Lord, 1649 being the first from bissextile or leap-year, and from the creation of the world 5598, wherein is contained many useful, pleasant and necessary observations, and predictions&nbsp;...&nbsp;: calculated (according to art) for the meridian and latitude of the ancient borough town of Stamford in Lincolnshire&nbsp;... and without sensible errour may serve the 3. kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. |last=WING |first=Vincent |year=1649 |location=London |publisher=J.L. for the Company of Stationers |quote=anni æræ Christianæ, 1649}}</ref> A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance of the English use of "Christian Era".<ref>{{cite book |title=A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year&nbsp;...&nbsp;: with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for&nbsp;... Rochester |author=Sliter, Robert |year=1652 |publisher=Printed for the Company of Stationers |location=London}}</ref>

The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708,<ref name=1708CommonInEnglish>{{cite book |title=The History of the Works of the Learned |volume=10 |number=9 |location=London |date=January 1708 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-the-works-of-the-learned_1708-09_10_9/page/n10/mode/1up 513] |quote=... to the fourth century of the Common Era}} (Possibly the first use of ''common era'' in English (1708))</ref> and in a 1715 book on astronomy, it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era".<ref>{{cite book |first=David|last=Gregory |title=The Elements of Astronomy, Physical and Geometrical |author2=John Nicholson|author3-link=John Morphew |author3= John Morphew |year=1715 |quote=Some say the World was created 3950 Years before the common Æra of Christ |page=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofastron00greg/page/252/mode/2up 252] |publisher=J. Nicholson |location=London |volume=1 }} ''Before Christ'' and ''Christian Era'' appear on the same page 252, while ''Vulgar Era'' appears on [https://archive.org/details/elementsofastron00greg/page/250/mode/2up page 250]</ref> A 1759 history book uses ''common æra'' in a generic sense to refer to "the common era of the Jews".<ref>{{cite book |title=An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time |first=George|last=Sale|author-link=George Sale |author2=Psalmanazar, George |author3=Bower, Archibald |author4=Shelvocke, George |author5=Campbell, John |author6= Swinton, John |year=1759 |quote=And it doth not appear, that they began to reckon from the creation till after their ''[[Gemarrah]]'' was finished;at which time they fixed that for their common era |publisher=C. Bathurst [etc.] |location=London |volume=13| page=[https://archive.org/details/anuniversalhist28swingoog/page/n145 130] |title-link=An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time}} [In this case, ''their'' refers to the Jews.]</ref> The phrase "before the common era" may have first appeared in a 1770 work that also uses ''common era'' and ''vulgar era'' as synonyms in a translation of a book originally written in German. <ref>{{cite book |last=Hooper|first=William |author2=Bielfeld, Jacob Friedrich |title=The Elements of Universal Erudition: Containing an Analytical Abridgment of the Sciences, Polite Arts, and Belles Lettres |volume=3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/elementsofuniver03bieluoft/page/63/mode/1up 63], [https://archive.org/details/elementsofuniver03bieluoft/page/105/mode/1up?view=theater 105] |year=1770 |publisher=J Robson and B. Law  |location=London |quote=The Spanish era began with the year of the world 3966, and 38 years before the common era (p63); 1796 years before the common era [...] 776 before the vulgar era. (p105) }} [Possibly the first English use of "before the common era", with "vulgar era" synonymous with "common era" (1770)]</ref> The 1797 edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] uses the terms ''vulgar era'' and ''common era'' synonymously.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&q=%22vulgar+era%22&pg=RA1-PA228 228] |entry=Peter |quote=St Peter died in the 66th year of the vulgar era  |date=1797 |publisher=A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar |author1=MacFarquhar, Colin |author2=Gleig, George}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&q=%22common+era%22&pg=PA50 50]|entry=Paul |quote=This happened in the 33rd year of the common era, some time after our Saviour's death. |date=1797 |publisher=A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar |author1=MacFarquhar, Colin |author2=Gleig, George }}</ref> 
In 1835, in his book ''[[Living Oracles]]'', [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/tlo4/TLO400L4.HTM |title=The Living Oracles, Fourth Edition |year=1835 |author=Alexander Campbell |pages=16–20 |access-date=18 May 2011|author-link=Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) }}</ref> He refers to the ''common era'' as a synonym for ''vulgar era'': "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/tlo4/TLO400L3.HTM |title=The Living Oracles, Fourth Edition |year=1835 |author=Alexander Campbell |pages=15–16 |access-date=18 May 2011|author-link=Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement) }}</ref> The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1909), in at least one article, reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite Encyclopedia |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |entry-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm#christian |entry=General Chronology |quote=Foremost among these [various eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living}}.</ref>

The phrase "common era", in [[lower case]], also appeared in the 19th century in a "generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in everyday use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | entry=Epoch |entry-url=https://archive.org/details/popularencyclop13encygoog/page/207/mode/1up? |quote=the common era of the Jews places the creation in BC 3760 | title=Popular Encyclopedia or Conversations Lexicon |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=A. Whitelaw |editor-link=Alexander Whitelaw (editor)|year=1874 |page=207 |volume=V}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e6oCAAAAQAAJ&q=%22common+era+of+the+jews%22&pg=PA176 176] |title=The first and second Advent: or, The past and the future with reference to the Jew, the gentile, and the Church of God |date=1858 |quote=Hence the present year, 1858, in the common era of the Jews, is AM 5618–5619, a difference of more than 200 years from our commonly-received chronology. |publisher=Wertheim, MacIntosh & Hunt }}</ref> "the common era of the Mahometans",<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924084318892/page/n7/mode/1up 4] |title=Practical tables for the reduction of Mahometan dates to the Christian calendar  |quote=Its epoch is the first of March old style. The common era of the Mahometans, as has already been stated, is that of the flight of Mahomet. |author1=Gumpach, Johannes von |date=1856 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> "common era of the world",<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXIAAAAAMAAJ&q=%22common+era+of+the%22&pg=PA354 354]  |title=The Theological, Philosophical and Miscellaneous Works of the Rev. William Jones |url=https://archive.org/details/theologicalphil09jonegoog |first=William|last=Jones |date=1801 |location=London|publisher=Rivington}}</ref> or "the common era of the foundation of Rome".<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6FKHIeUQ2J0C&q=%22common+era+of+the+foundation+of+rome%22&pg=PA284 284]  |date=1854 |title=Universal History: From the Creation of the World to the Beginning of the Eighteenth Century |author=[[Alexander Fraser Tytler]] |publisher=Fetridge and Company |location=Boston}}</ref> When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified (e.g., "common era of the Incarnation",<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HKgMAAAAYAAJ&q=%22common+era+of+the+incarnation%22&pg=PA711 711] | last=Baynes |first=Thomas Spencer |date=1833 |title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature |location=New York |publisher=Henry G. Allen and Company |edition=9 |volume=V }}</ref> "common era of the Nativity",<ref>{{cite book |quote=It should be observed, however, that these years correspond to 492 and 493, a portion of the [[annals of Ulster]] being counted from the Incarnation, and being, therefore, one year before the common era of the Nativity of our Lord. |last=Todd |first=James Henthorn |date=1864 |title=St. Patrick, Apostle of Ireland, A Memoir of his Life and Mission |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924029424110  |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924029424110/page/495]{{ndash}}497 |publisher=Hodges, Smith & Co |location=Dublin |author-link=James Henthorn Todd }}</ref> or "common era of the birth of Christ").<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PGdCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22common+era+of+the%22&pg=PR16 xvi]  |title=Annotations on the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles |author=Heneage Elsley |date=1812 |edition=2nd |publisher= T. Payne |location=London |no-pp=true}}</ref>

An adapted translation of ''Common Era'' into [[Latin]] as {{lang|la|Era Vulgaris}}{{efn|''era''{{snd}} or, with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], {{lang|la|ēra}}{{snd}} being an alternative form of {{lang|la|aera}}; {{lang|la|aera}} is the usual form<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Dictionnaire Illustré Latin-Français]] |author=[[Félix Gaffiot]] |publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]] |date=1934}}</ref>}} was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of [[Aleister Crowley]], and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Weiser Concise Guide to Aleister Crowley |first=Richard |last=Kaczynski |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1adnRtKaWakC&pg=PA48 48]  |publisher=Weiser Books |date=1 April 2009}}</ref>

=== History of the use of the CE/BCE abbreviation ===
Although [[Jews]] have the [[Hebrew calendar]], they often use the Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix, as [[Judaism]] does not recognize Jesus as the [[Messiah in Judaism|Messiah]].<ref>{{cite web |quote=Jews do not generally use the words 'A.D.' and 'B.C.' to refer to the years on the Gregorian calendar. 'A.D.' means 'the year of our [[L-rd]],' and we do not believe Jesus is the L-rd. Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era). |author=Tracey R Rich |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/calendar.htm#Years | title=Jewish Calendar |website=Judaism 101 | access-date=18 May 2011}}</ref> As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/susser/plymouthinscriptions.htm |title= Plymouth Hoe Old Jewish Cemetery Tombstone Inscriptions 3 |date=2003 |publisher=Jewish Communities & Records, Susser Archive |editor-first1=Bernard |editor-last1=Susser |quote=Here is buried his honour Judah ben his honour Joseph, a prince and honoured amongst philanthropists, who executed good deeds, died in his house in the City of Bath, Tuesday, and was buried here on Sunday, 19 Sivan in the year 5585. In memory of Lyon Joseph Esq (merchant of Falmouth, Cornwall). who died at Bath June AM 5585/VE 1825. Beloved and respected. |access-date=18 May 2011}} [19 Sivan 5585 [[Anno Mundi|AM]] is 5 June 1825. VE is likely an abbreviation for ''Vulgar Era''.]</ref> {{As of|2005}}, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century.<ref name=Gormley /> Jews have also used the term '''Current Era'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/history/history_1.shtml#section_2 | title=History of Judaism 63 BCE – 1086 CE| date=8 February 2005 |author=BBC Team |work=BBC Religion & Ethics |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation | access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref>