Editing Chumash people (section)

==History==
[[File:Pictographs_at_the_Burro_Flats_Painted_Cave.png|thumb|right|250px|Chumash pictographs in [[Simi Valley, California|Simi Valley]] dating to 500 AD.<ref>Appleton, Bill (2009). ''Santa Susana''. Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4396-3820-0}}. p. 11.</ref>]]
[[File:2009 07 09 camino cielo paradise 137.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Pictographs]], [[Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park]]]]

===Prior to European contact (pre-1542)===
Indigenous peoples have lived along the California coast for at least 11,000 years.<ref>Dartt-Newton, Deana & Erlandson, Jon (Summer/Fall 2006). "Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California". ''[[American Indian Quarterly]]'', Vol. 30, No. 3 & 4, 416</ref> Sites of the [[Millingstone Horizon]] date from 7000 to 4500 BC and show evidence of a subsistence system focused on the processing of seeds with ''metates'' and ''manos''.<ref>Glassow et al. 2007: 192–196</ref> 

During that time, people used bipointed bone objects and line to catch fish and began making beads from shells of the marine olive snail (''[[Callianax biplicata]]'').<ref>King 1990: 80–82, 106–107, 231</ref> The name Chumash means "bead maker" or "seashell people" being that they originated near the Santa Barbara coast. The Chumash tribes near the coast benefited most with the "close juxtaposition of a variety of marine and terrestrial habitats, intensive upwelling in coastal waters, and intentional burning of the landscape made the Santa Barbara Channel region one of the most resource abundant places on the planet."<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>

[[File:ChumashFamilybyGeorgeSStuart.jpg|thumb|left|Chumash Family by American sculptor George S. Stuart]]

While droughts were not uncommon in the centuries of the first millennium AD, a population explosion occurred with the coming of the [[medieval warm period]]. "Marine productivity soared between 950 and 1300 as natural upwelling intensified off the coast."<ref>Fagan, ''The Long Summer'', 2004, p. 222</ref> Before the mission period, the Chumash lived in over 150 independent villages, speaking variations of the same language. Much of their culture consisted of basketry, bead manufacturing and trading, cuisine of local abalone and clam, [[herbalism]] using local herbs to produce teas and medical reliefs, [[rock art]], and the scorpion tree.<ref>Barry.</ref> 

The scorpion tree was significant to the Chumash, as shown in its [[arborglyph]]: a carving depicting a six-legged creature with a headdress including a crown and two spheres. The shamans participated in the carving which was used in observations of the stars and in part of the Chumash calendar.<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref> The Chumash resided between the [[Santa Ynez Mountains]] and the California coasts where a bounty of resources could be found. The tribe lived in an area of three environments: the interior, the coast, and the [[Channel Islands (California)|Northern Channel Islands]].<ref>Gamble 21.</ref> 

The interior is composed of the land outside the coast and spanning the wide plains, rivers, and mountains. The coast covers the cliffs, land close to the ocean, and the areas of the ocean from which the Chumash harvested. The Northern Channel Islands lie off the coast of the Chumash territory. All of the California coastal-interior has a [[Mediterranean climate]] due to the incoming ocean winds.<ref>Timbrook 164.</ref> [[Image:Chumash langs.png|thumb|200px|Precontact distribution of the Chumash]]The mild temperatures, save for winter, made gathering easy; during the cold months, the Chumash harvested what they could and supplemented their diets with stored foods. What villagers gathered and traded during the seasons changed depending on where they resided.<ref>Gamble 228.</ref> With coasts populated by masses of species of fish and land densely covered by trees and animals, the Chumash had a diverse array of food.

Abundant resources and a winter rarely harsh enough to cause concern meant the tribe lived a sedentary lifestyle in addition to a subsistence existence. Villages in the three aforementioned areas contained remains of sea mammals, indicating that trade networks existed for moving materials throughout the Chumash territory.<ref>Coombs and Plog 313.</ref><ref>Fauvelle, Mikael. and Perry, Jennifer. (2023) Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer Complexity on California’s Islands: Feasting, Ceremonialism, and the Ritual Economy.  In Archaeology of Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer Complexity in North America.  Christina Perry Sampson, ed. Pp. 194–224. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.</ref> The Chumash were connected to extensive trade networks reaching into modern-day Arizona, from which pottery and textiles were traded in exchange for shell beads.<ref>Smith, Erin M., and Fauvelle, Mikael (2015) Regional Interactions between California and the Southwest: The Western Edge of the North American Continental System. American Anthropologist 17(4):710-721 https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.12346</ref> The emergence of this trade network within the Chumash territory was facilitated by the existence of three distinct Chumash ecological groups including the island, coastal, and mainland Chumash. Access to distinct resources for these different groups made inter-Chumash trade a large part of life. Villages along the mainland coast emerged as intermediaries between groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Jennifer |last2=Delaney-Rivera |first2=Colleen |date=April 2011 |title=Interactions and Interiors of the Coastal Chumash |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/cal.2011.3.1.103 |journal=California Archaeology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=103–126 |doi=10.1179/cal.2011.3.1.103 |issn=1947-461X}}</ref> 

The closer a village was to the ocean, the greater its reliance on maritime resources.<ref>Gamble 6.</ref><ref>Fauvelle, Mikael, and Somerville, Andrew D. (2021) Spatial and Temporal Variation in Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer Diets in Southern California: Bayesian Modeling Using New Baseline Stable Isotope Values. Quanternary International 601(2021):36-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2021.06.025</ref> Due to advanced canoe designs, coastal and island people could procure fish and aquatic mammals from farther out. Shellfish were a good source of nutrition: relatively easy to find and abundant. Many of the favored varieties grew in tidal zones.<ref>Gamble 26–28.</ref> Shellfish grew in abundance during winter to early spring; their proximity to shore made collection easier. Some of the consumed species included mussels, abalone, and a wide array of clams. [[Haliotis rufescens]] (red abalone) was harvested along the [[Central California]] coast in the pre-contact era.<ref>Hogan, C.M. [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 Los Osos Back Bay.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816234114/http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |date=2017-08-16 }} The Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham (2008).</ref> The Chumash and other [[California Indians]] also used red [[abalone]] shells to make a variety of fishhooks, beads, ornaments, and other artifacts.

Ocean animals such as otters and seals were thought to be the primary meal of coastal tribes people, but recent evidence shows the aforementioned trade networks exchanged oceanic animals for terrestrial foods from the interior. Any village could acquire fish, but the coastal and island communities specialized in catching not just smaller fish, but also the massive catches such as swordfish.<ref name="Gamble 156">(Gamble 156).</ref> This feat, difficult even for today's technology, was made possible by the [[tomol]] plank canoe. Its design allowed for the capture of deepwater fish, and it facilitated trade routes between villages.<ref name="Gamble 156" />

Some researchers believe that the Chumash [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact#Polynesians|may have been visited]] by [[Polynesians]] between AD 400 and 800, nearly 1,000 years before [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the [[Americas]].<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/06/20/MNG9GDBBLG1.DTL Did ancient Polynesians visit California? Maybe so.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230013157/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2FMNG9GDBBLG1.DTL|date=2007-12-30}}, ''San Francisco Chronicle''</ref> The Chumash advanced sewn-plank canoe design, used throughout [[Polynesia]] but unknown in North America except by those two tribes, is cited as the chief evidence for contact. [[Comparative linguistics]] may provide evidence as the Chumash word for "sewn-plank canoe", ''[[Tomol|tomolo'o]]'', may have been derived from ''kumula'au'', the Polynesian word for the [[Sequoia sempervirens|redwood]] logs used in that construction. However, the language comparison is generally considered tentative. Furthermore, the development of the Chumash plank canoe is fairly well represented in the archaeological record and spans several centuries.<ref>Arnold, Jeanne E. 1995.</ref><ref>Gamble, Lynn H. 2002.</ref> The concept is rejected by most archaeologists who work with the Chumash culture, and there is no evidence of a genetic legacy.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Terry L.|author2=Kathryn A. Klar|date=June 3, 2005|title=Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California|url=http://www.saa.org/publications/AmAntiq/70-3/Jones.html|url-status=dead|journal=American Antiquity|volume=70|issue=3|pages=457–484|doi=10.2307/40035309|jstor=40035309|s2cid=161301055|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927085144/http://www.saa.org/Publications/AmAntiq/70-3/Jones.html|archive-date=September 27, 2006|access-date=2008-03-06}} and {{cite journal|last=Adams|first=James D.|author2=Cecilia Garcia|author3=Eric J. Lien|date=January 23, 2008|title=A Comparison of Chinese and American Indian (Chumash) Medicine|url=http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/nem188v1|journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=7|issue=2|pages=219–225|doi=10.1093/ecam/nem188|pmc=2862936|pmid=18955312|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214184401/http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/nem188v1|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 14, 2009|access-date=2008-03-06}}. See also [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~tljones/ Terry Jones's homepage] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511194439/http://cla.calpoly.edu/~tljones/|date=2008-05-11}}, California Polytechnic State University.</ref>

Before contact with Europeans, coastal Chumash relied less on terrestrial resources than they did on maritime; vice versa for interior Chumash.<ref name="Gamble 164">(Gamble 164).</ref> Regardless, they consumed similar land resources. Like many other tribes, deer were the most important land mammal the Chumash pursued; deer were consumed in varying amounts across all regions, which cannot be said for other terrestrial animals. Interior Chumash placed greater value on the deer, to the extent of developing unique hunting practices for them.

They dressed as deer and grazed alongside the animals until the hunters were in range to use their arrows.<ref name="Gamble 164" /> Even Chumash close to the ocean pursued deer, though in fewer numbers. The villages also relied on smaller animals, such as rabbits and birds, to supplement their meat needs. Plant foods composed the rest of the Chumash diet, especially acorns, which were the staple food despite the work needed to remove their inherent toxins. They could be ground into a paste that was easy to eat and store for years.<ref>Gamble 23.</ref> Coast live oak provided the best acorns; their mush would usually be served unseasoned with meat and fish.<ref>Brittain 5.</ref>

===Spanish contact and the mission period (1542–1834)===
{{See also|Chumash revolt of 1824}}
[[File:Chmash musicians 1873.jpg|thumb|Chumash musicians at [[Mission San Buenaventura]], 1873]]

The maritime explorer [[Juan Cabrillo]] was the first European to make contact with the coastal Alta Californian tribes in the year 1542.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish California {{!}} Early California History: An Overview {{!}} Articles and Essays {{!}} California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849–1900 {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/spanish-california/|access-date=2020-08-18|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> Cabrillo died and was buried on San Miguel Island, but his men brought back a diary that contained the names and population counts for many Chumash villages, such as [[Mikiw]]. Spain claimed what is now California from that time forward, but did not return to settle until 1769, when the first Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived with the double purpose of [[Christianization|Christianizing]] the Native Americans and facilitating Spanish colonization. By the end of 1770, missions and military [[presidio]]s had been founded at [[San Diego]] to the south of Chumash lands and [[Monterey]] to their north.<ref>Brown 1967</ref>

With the arrival of the Europeans "came a series of unprecedented blows to the Chumash and their traditional lifeways. Anthropologists, historians, and other scholars have long been interested in documenting the collision of cultures that accompanied the European exploration and colonization of the Americas."<ref name="Newton 4162"/> In 1770, Spain settled in Chumash territory. They founded colonies, [[Spanish missions in California|bringing in missionaries to begin evangelizing Native Americans in the region]] by forcing Chumash villages into numerous missions that emerged along the coast.

The Chumash people moved from their villages to the Franciscan missions between 1772 and 1817. [[Mission San Luis Obispo]], established in 1772, was the first mission in Chumash-speaking lands, as well as the northernmost of the five missions ever constructed in those lands. Next established, in 1782, was [[Mission San Buenaventura]] on the Pacific Coast near the mouth of the Santa Clara River. Mission Santa Barbara, also on the coast, and facing out to the Channel Islands, was established in 1786.

[[Mission La Purisima]] Concepción was founded along the inland route from Santa Barbara north to San Luis Obispo in 1789. The final Franciscan mission to be constructed in native Chumash territory was Santa Ynez, founded in 1804 on the Santa Ynez River with a seed population of Chumash people from Missions La Purisima and Santa Barbara. To the southeast, Mission San Fernando, founded in 1798 in the land of Takic Shoshonean speakers, also took in large numbers of Chumash speakers from the middle Santa Clara River valley. While most of the Chumash people joined one mission or another between 1772 and 1806, a significant portion of the native inhabitants of the Channel Islands did not move to the mainland missions until 1816.<ref>McLendon and Johnson 1999</ref> 

[[Radiocarbon dating]] of artifacts on the southernmost of the Channel Islands, San Clemente Island, suggests that the Chumash people lived without significant contact from Spanish settlers and missionaries until the 1870’s. This island shows a clear lack of Spanish influence on its archaeology up until this point. Because of its remoteness, it was perhaps the last Chumash area to be colonized.<ref>Ruby, A., & Whitaker, A. R. (2019). Remote Places As Post-Contact Refugia. ''California Archaeology'', ''11''(2), 205–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/1947461X.2019.1655624</ref>

===Mexican era (1834–1848)===
[[File:Librado Making Kelp Fetish 1912.jpg|thumb|[[Fernando Librado]] was born in the Mexican era to two Chumash parents from ''[[Santa Cruz Island|Limuw]]''.]]

Mexico seized control of the missions in 1834. Tribespeople either fled into the interior, attempted farming for themselves and were driven off the land, or were enslaved by the new administrators. Many found highly exploitative work on large Mexican ranches. After 1849, most Chumash land was lost due to theft by Americans and a declining population, due to the effects of violence and disease.

The remaining Chumash began to lose their cohesive identity. In 1855, a small piece of land (120 acres) was set aside for just over 100 remaining Chumash Indians near Santa Ynez mission. This land ultimately became the only Chumash reservation, although Chumash individuals and families also continued to live throughout their former territory in southern California. Today, the Santa Ynez band lives at and near Santa Ynez. The Chumash population was between roughly 10,000 and 18,000 in the late 18th century. In 1990, 213 Indians lived on the [[Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Mission Indians#Reservation|Santa Ynez Reservation]].<ref>(Pritzker).</ref>

===American era (1848–present)===
[[File:Chumash indian museum thousand oaks.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed Chumash hut at the [[Chumash Indian Museum]]]]
[[File:CINMS - Tomol Crossing Sunrise .jpg|thumb|The Chumash revived their cultural tradition of traveling via ''[[tomol]]'' from the California coast to the [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]].]]

The Chumash reservation, established in 1901, encompasses 127 acres. No native Chumash speak their own language since Mary Yee, the last Barbareño speaker, died in 1965. Today, the Chumash are estimated to have a population of 5,000 members. Many current members can trace their ancestors to the five islands of [[Channel Islands National Park]].

Beginning in the 1970s, neo-Chumash arose, tracing their lineage nearly completely from the descendants of Spanish colonists to the domain of the initial Chumash people. They promote traditions of the Chumash, and are recognized locally. Their cultural assumption has been criticized by some, but is supported by others.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haley|first1=Brian D.|last2=Wilcoxon|first2=Larry R.|date=September 2005|title=How Spaniards Became Chumash and Other Tales of Ethnogenesis|journal=American Anthropologist|publisher=American Anthropological Association|volume=107|issue=3|pages=432–445|doi=10.1525/aa.2005.107.3.432|jstor=3567028}}</ref>

The first modern ''tomol'' was built and launched in 1976 as a result of a joint venture between Quabajai Chumash of the Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation and the [[Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History]]. Its name is ''Helek/Xelex'', the Chumash word for falcon. The Brotherhood of the Tomol was revived and her crew paddled and circumnavigated around the [[Santa Barbara Channel Islands]] on a 10-day journey, stopping on three of the islands. The second ''tomol'', the ''Elye'wun'' ("[[swordfish]]"), was launched in 1997.

On September 9, 2001, the first "crossing" in the Chumash tomol, from the mainland to Channel Islands, was sponsored by the Chumash Maritime Association and the Barbareño Chumash Council. Several Chumash bands and descendants gathered on the island of Limuw (the Chumash name for Santa Cruz Island) to witness the ''Elye'wun'' being paddled from the mainland to Santa Cruz Island.

Their journey was documented in the short film "Return to Limuw" produced by the Ocean Channel for the Chumash Maritime Association, Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, and the Santa Barbara Maritime Museum. The channel crossings have become a yearly event hosted by the Barbareño Chumash Council. The [[Santa Ynez Band of Chumash]] is a [[Federally recognized tribe|federally recognized]] Chumash tribe. They have the [[Santa Ynez Reservation]] located in [[Santa Barbara County, California|Santa Barbara County]], near Santa Ynez. Chumash people are also enrolled in the [[Tejon Indian Tribe of California]].

[[File:Chumash Dancer by Chris Seaton (49936483912).jpg|thumb|Chumash dancer|alt=A Chumash woman wearing brightly colored traditional attire]]

In addition to the Santa Ynez Band, the Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation and the Barbareño/Ventureño Band of Mission Indians are attempting to gain federal recognition. Other Chumash tribal groups include the Northern Chumash Tribal Council, descendants from the San Luis Obispo area, and the Barbareño Chumash Council, descendants from the greater Santa Barbara area. The publication of the first Chumash dictionary took place in April 2008. Six hundred pages long and containing 4,000 entries, the ''Samala-English Dictionary'' includes more than 2,000 illustrations.<ref>''Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians Publishes Language Dictionary''. ([https://archive.today/20130202003631/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS180466+21-Apr-2008+PRN20080421])</ref> The documentary film ''6 Generations: A Chumash Family History'' features [[Mary Yee]], the last speaker of the [[Barbareño language|Barbareño Chumash language]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kettmann |first=Matt |date=2011-01-27 |title=Santa Barbara on Screen |url=http://www.independent.com/news/2011/jan/27/santa-barbara-screen/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117234301/http://www.independent.com/news/2011/jan/27/santa-barbara-screen/ |archive-date=2013-01-17 |access-date=2013-05-08 |work=The Santa Barbara Independent}}</ref>

====Produce initiative====
In December 2010, the Foodbank of Santa Barbara County was the recipient of a $10,000 grant from the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians Foundation to support expansion of the Produce Initiative. The Produce Initiative puts an emphasis on supplying fruits and vegetables to 264 local nonprofits and food programs. The foodbank distributes produce free of charge to member agencies to encourage healthy eating. Expanding produce accessibility to children is important to the foodbank and the newly operating Kids’ Farmers' Market program, an extension of the Produce Initiative, achieves that goal.

The program trains volunteers to teach kids in after-school programs nutrition education and hands-on cooking instructions. This program currently operates at 12 sites countywide, including in the Santa Ynez Valley. After the children cook and eat a healthy meal, they get to take home a bag full of fresh produce, where they can help feed and cook for the whole family.<ref>Santa Barbara Independent.</ref> Obesity in children is a major health problem prevalent among Native Americans.<ref>Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2014). [https://archive.today/20140516184009/http://americanindian2.abc-clio.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/ "Childhood obesity"]. {{dead link|date=July 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} In ''The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience''. Retrieved February 28, 2014.</ref>

To promote sustainable agriculture and healthy diets, the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Environmental Office and Education Departments' after-school program planted a community garden, which provided vegetables to the Elder's Council, beginning in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chumash Community Garden Update|url=http://syceo.org/2016/05/chumash-community-update/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918193525/http://syceo.org/2016/05/chumash-community-update/|archive-date=18 September 2016|access-date=26 August 2016|website=Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office}}</ref> The Santa Ynez Valley Fruit and Vegetable Rescue, also known as Veggie Rescue, is another effort to improve food sourcing for the Santa Ynez.<ref>{{cite web|title=Veggie Rescue|url=http://www.veggierescue.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816070630/http://www.veggierescue.org/|archive-date=16 August 2016|access-date=26 August 2016}}</ref>