Editing Christian views on marriage (section)

==Biblical foundations and history==
{{Christianity and gender}}

=== Old Testament ===
{{See also|Polygamy#Judaism|Pilegesh}}

[[Polygyny]], or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Old Testament,<ref name="JewEncMar">{{Jewish Encyclopedia|article=marriage|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=M&artid=213}}</ref> yet scholars doubt that it was common among average Israelites because of the wealth needed to practice it.<ref>Gene McAfee [http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t120.e0669 "Sex"] The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan, eds. Oxford University Press Inc. 1993. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 19 March 2010.</ref> Both the [[biblical patriarchs]] and [[kings of Israel]] are described as engaged in polygamous relationships.<ref>[[Dale Martin (scholar)|Dale Martin]] [https://vimeo.com/8581466 lecture].</ref> Despite the various polygynous relationships in the Bible, Old Testament scholar Peter Gentry has said that it does not mean that God condones polygyny. He also made note of the various problems that polygynous relationships present with the examples of Abraham, Jacob, David, and Solomon in the Bible.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Showalter |first1=Brandon |title=Does God condone polygamy? Bible scholar says 'no,' OT shows it only creates turmoil |date=14 December 2019 |url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/does-god-condone-polygamy-bible-scholar-says-no-old-testament-shows-it-only-creates-turmoil.html |access-date=21 July 2020}}</ref> Alternatively, this could be a case of [[graded absolutism]].

[[Betrothal]] ({{transliteration|hbo|[[erusin]]}}), which is merely a binding promise to get married, is distinct from marriage itself ({{transliteration|hbo|[[nissuin|nissu'in]]}}), with the time between these events varying substantially.<ref name="JewEncMar" /><ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar">{{EncyclopaediaBiblica|article=Marriage|section=Manius-Mash}}</ref> Since a wife was regarded as property in biblical times, the betrothal ({{transliteration|hbo|erusin}}) was effected simply by purchasing her from her father (or [[parental guardian|guardian]]) (i.e. paying the [[bride price]] to the woman and her father);<ref name="JewEncMar" /><ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar" /> the woman's consent is not explicitly required by any biblical law. Nonetheless, in one Biblical story, [[Rebecca]] was asked whether she agreed to be married before the marriage took place.<ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar" /><ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|24:57–58|HE}}</ref> Additionally, according to French [[anthropologist]] Philippe Rospabé, the payment of the bride price does not entail the [[Slavery|purchase of a woman]], as was thought in the early twentieth century. Instead, it is a purely symbolic gesture acknowledging (but never paying off) the husband's permanent debt to the wife's parents.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Graeber|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/debtfirst5000yea00grae/page/131|title=Debt: The First 5,000 Years|publisher=Melville House|year=2011|isbn=978-1-933633-86-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/debtfirst5000yea00grae/page/131 131–132]}}</ref>

[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 146.jpg|thumb|right|Rembrandt's depiction of Samson's marriage feast]]
Like the adjacent Arabic culture ([[Pre-Islamic Arabia|in the pre-Islamic period]]),<ref>[[William Robertson Smith]], ''Kinship and Marriage in early Arabia'', (1885), 81</ref> the act of marriage appears mainly to have consisted of the groom fetching the bride, although among the [[Israelites]]  the procession was a festive occasion, accompanied by music, dancing, and lights.<ref name="JewEncMar" /><ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar" /> To celebrate the marriage, week-long feasts were sometimes held.<ref name="JewEncMar" /><ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar" />

In Old Testament times, a wife was submissive to her husband, which may interpreted as Israelite society viewing wives as the [[Slavery|chattel]] of husbands.<ref name="JewEncMar" /><ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar" />

Since a wife was regarded as property, her husband was originally free to divorce her with little restriction, at any time.<ref name="CheyneAndBlackMar" />

=== Jesus on marriage, divorce, and remarriage ===
[[File:Christian-Marriage-Symbol.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|Sometimes used as a [[symbol]] for Christian marriage: Two gold wedding rings interlinked with the Greek letters ''[[Chi (letter)|chi]]'' (X) and ''[[Rho (letter)|rho]]'' (P)—the first two letters in the Greek word for "Christ" (see [[Labarum]])]]

According to the Vatican as of a time before 2002,{{When|date=September 2024}} marriage vows are unbreakable, so that even in the distressing circumstances in which a couple separates, they are still married from God's point of view. As of at least that time, this is the Roman Catholic church's position, although occasionally the church will declare a marriage to be "null" (in other words, it never really was a marriage).<ref>"Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sacrament of Matrimony". [www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c3a7.htm]</ref> [[William Barclay (theologian)|William Barclay (1907–1978)]] has written:

{{Blockquote|There is no time in history when the marriage bond stood in greater peril of destruction than in the days when Christianity first came into this world. At that time the world was in danger of witnessing the almost total break-up of marriage and the collapse of the home... Theoretically no nation ever had a higher ideal of marriage than the Jews had. The voice of God had said, "I hate divorce"<ref>in {{Bibleverse|Malachi|2:16}}</ref>|William Barclay<ref>Barclay, William. ''The Gospel of Matthew''. Westminster John Knox Press, Rev Upd edition (December 1, 2001). {{ISBN|978-0664224912}}</ref>}}

[[Frank Stagg (theologian)|Theologian Frank Stagg]] says that manuscripts disagree as to the presence in the original text of the phrase "except for fornication".<ref name="Stagg NT">Stagg, Frank.''New Testament Theology''. Broadman, 1962. {{ISBN|0-8054-1613-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp.300–301}} Stagg writes: "Divorce always represents failure...a deviation from God's will.... There is grace and redemption where there is contrition and repentance.... There is no clear authorization in the New Testament for remarriage after divorce." Stagg interprets the chief concern of Matthew 5 as being "to condemn the criminal act of the man who divorces an innocent wife.... Jesus was rebuking the husband who victimizes an innocent wife and thinks that he makes it right with her by giving her a divorce". He points out that [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] refused to be trapped by the [[Pharisees]] into choosing between the strict and liberal positions on divorce as held at the time in Judaism. When they asked him, "Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife for any cause?"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Mt.|19:3}}</ref> he answered by reaffirming God's will as stated in Genesis,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Gen.|1:27}} and {{Bibleverse|Gen.|2:24}}</ref> that in marriage husband and wife are made "one flesh", and what God has united man must not separate.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Mt.|19:4-6}}</ref><ref name="Stagg NT" />{{rp|pp.300–301}}

There is no evidence that Jesus himself ever married, and considerable evidence that he remained single. In contrast to Judaism and many other traditions,<ref name="EOC">Fahlbusch, Erwin and Geoffrey Bromiley. ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity.'' Brill Academic Publishers (November 2000). {{ISBN|90-04-11695-8}}.</ref>{{Rp|p.283}} he taught that there is a place for voluntary singleness in Christian service. He believed marriage could be a distraction from an urgent mission,<ref>Armstrong, Karen. ''The Gospel according to women: Christianity's creation of the sex war in the west,'' Anchor Books, 1991. {{ISBN|978-0-385-24079-6}}</ref> that he was living in a time of crisis and urgency where the [[Kingdom of God]] would be established where there would be no marriage nor giving in marriage:

{{Blockquote|
"I tell you the truth," Jesus said to them, "no one who has left home or wife or brothers or parents or children for the sake of the kingdom of God will fail to receive many times as much in this age and, in the [[World to Come|age to come]], [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]]."|<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|18:29–30}}</ref>
}}

=== New Testament beyond the Gospels ===
[[File:PaulT.jpg|thumb|left|''Saint Paul Writing His Epistles'', 16th century.]]
The [[Saint Paul|Apostle Paul]] quoted passages from Genesis almost verbatim in two of his New Testament books. He used marriage not only to describe the kingdom of God, as Jesus had done, but to define also the nature of the 1st-century Christian church. His [[theology|theological view]] was a Christian development of the [[Old Testament]] parallel between marriage and the relationship between God and [[Israel]]. He analogized the church as a bride and Christ as the bridegroom─drawing parallels between Christian marriage and the relationship between Christ and the [[Christian Church|Church]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

There is no hint in the New Testament that Jesus was ever married, and no clear evidence that Paul was ever married. However, both Jesus and Paul seem to view marriage as a legitimate calling from God for Christians. Paul elevates singleness to that of the preferable position, but does offer a caveat suggesting this is "because of the impending crisis"—which could itself extend to present times (see also [[Pauline privilege]]).<ref>{{bibleverse|1Corinthians|7:1,7-9,17,26-28,38,40|NET}}</ref> Paul's primary issue was that marriage adds concerns to one's life that detract from their ability to serve God without distraction.<ref>Rubio, Julie Hanlon. ''A Christian Theology of Marriage and Family.'' Paulist Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-8091-4118-3}}.</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|7:32-35|NET}}</ref>

Some scholars have speculated that Paul may have been a widower since prior to his conversion to Christianity he was a [[Pharisees|Pharisee]] and member of the [[Sanhedrin]], positions in which the social norm of the day required the men to be married. But it is just as likely that he never married at all.<ref name="Adams">Adams, Jay E. ''Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the Bible,'' Zondervan, 1986, {{ISBN|0-310-51111-9}}</ref>

=== Marriage and early Church Fathers ===

Building on what they saw the example of Jesus and Paul advocating, some early [[Church Fathers]] placed less value on the family and saw [[celibacy]] and freedom from family ties as a preferable state.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

[[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers|Nicene Fathers]] such as [[Augustine]] believed that marriage was a sacrament because it was a symbol used by Paul to express Christ's love of the Church. However, there was also an apocalyptic dimension in his teaching, and he was clear that if everybody stopped marrying and having children that would be an admirable thing; it would mean that the Kingdom of God would return all the sooner and the [[Eschatology|world would come to an end]].<ref name="Armstrong">Armstrong, Karen. ''Gospel According to Women.'' Anchor Books, 1991. {{ISBN|978-0-385-24079-6}}</ref> Such a view reflects the [[Manichaean]] past of Augustine and the influence of [[Neoplatonism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hunter |first=David G |date=1994 |title=Augustinian pessimism?: A new look at Augustine’s teaching on sex, marriage and celibacy |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/86894845/Augustinian_Pessimism_.pdf |journal=Augustinian Studies |volume=25 |pages=153-177}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=St. Augustine on Marriage and Sexuality |publisher=CUA Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780813208671 |editor-last=Clark |editor-first=Elizabeth Ann |editor-link=Elizabeth A. Clark |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

While upholding the New Testament teaching that marriage is "honourable in all and the bed undefiled,"<ref>Hebrews 13:4</ref> Augustine believed that "yet, whenever it comes to the actual process of generation, the very embrace which is lawful and honourable cannot be effected without the ardour of lust...This is the carnal concupiscence, which, while it is no longer accounted sin in the regenerate, yet in no case happens to nature except from sin."<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15071.htm Augustine, "On Marriage and Concupiscence," Book I], cp. 27</ref>

Both [[Tertullian]] and Gregory of Nyssa were church fathers who were married. They each stressed that the happiness of marriage was ultimately rooted in misery. They saw marriage as a state of bondage that could only be cured by celibacy. They wrote that at the very least, the virgin woman could expect release from the "governance of a husband and the chains of children."<ref>Scholer, David M.''Women in early Christianity.'' Garland Publishing, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0-8153-1074-7}}</ref>{{rp|p.151}}

[[Tertullian]] argued that second marriage, having been freed from the first by death,"will have to be termed no other than a species of fornication," partly based on the reasoning that this involves desiring to marry a woman out of sexual ardor, which a Christian convert is to avoid.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.iii.vi.ix.html "Chapter IX.—Second Marriage a Species of Adultery"] ANF04. Tertullian, Part Fourth.</ref>

Also advocating celibacy and virginity as preferable alternatives to marriage, [[Jerome]] wrote: "It is not disparaging wedlock to prefer virginity. No one can make a comparison between two things if one is good and the other evil."<ref>''Classical library from 'Select Letters of St. Jerome,''&nbsp;' Letter 22. tr. by F. A. Wright. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.</ref> On [[First Corinthians]] 7:1 he reasons, "It is good, he says, for a man not to touch a woman. If it is good not to touch a woman, it is bad to touch one: for there is no opposite to goodness but badness. But if it be bad and the evil is pardoned, the reason for the concession is to prevent worse evil."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vi.vi.I.html "Against Jovinianus," Book 1], Cps. 7,13,16,33</ref>

St. [[John Chrysostom]] wrote: "...virginity is better than marriage, however good.... Celibacy is...an imitation of the angels. Therefore, virginity is as much more honorable than marriage, as the angel is higher than man. But why do I say angel? Christ, Himself, is the glory of virginity."<ref>St. John Chrysostom, Homily 19 on First Corinthians, NPNF, s. 1, v. 12, pp. 248–262</ref>

[[Cyprian]], Bishop of Carthage, said that the first commandment given to men was to increase and multiply, but now that the earth was full there was no need to continue this process of multiplication.<ref>St. Cyprian, "Of the Discipline and Advantage of Chastity," ''ANF,'' v. 5, p.1251.</ref>

This view of marriage was reflected in the lack of any formal [[liturgy]] formulated for marriage in the [[Early Christianity|early Church]]. No special ceremonial was devised to celebrate Christian marriage—despite the fact that the Church had produced liturgies to celebrate the [[Eucharist]], [[Baptism]] and [[Confirmation]]. It was not important for a couple to have their nuptials blessed by a [[priest]]. People could marry by mutual agreement in the presence of witnesses.<ref name="Armstrong" />

At first, the old Roman pagan rite was used by Christians, although modified superficially. The first detailed account of a Christian wedding in the West dates from the [[Christianity in the 9th century|9th century]]. This system, known as Spousals, persisted after the [[Reformation]].<ref name="Armstrong" />