Editing Chiaroscuro (section)

==History==
===Origin in the chiaroscuro drawing===
[[File:Christ at Rest, by Hans Holbein the Younger.jpg|thumb|left|''Christ at Rest'', by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], 1519, a chiaroscuro drawing using pen, ink, and brush, washes, white heightening, on ochre prepared paper]]
The term ''chiaroscuro'' originated during the [[Renaissance]] as drawing on coloured paper, where the artist worked from the paper's base tone toward light using white [[gouache]], and toward dark using ink, [[bodycolour]] or [[watercolour]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080421003620/http://www.artmuseums.harvard.edu/fogg/drawingglossary.html#C#C Harvard Art Museum glossary] (accessed 30 August 2007). See also Metropolitan external link</ref><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/recent_acquisitions/1998/co_rec_eur_1998_15.asp Example from the Metropolitan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220055933/http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/recent_acquisitions/1998/co_rec_eur_1998_15.asp |date=December 20, 2008 }}</ref> These in turn drew on traditions in [[illuminated manuscript]]s going back to late Roman Imperial manuscripts on [[Purple parchment|purple-dyed vellum]]. Such works are called "'''chiaroscuro drawings'''", but may only be described in modern museum terminology by such formulae as "pen on prepared paper, heightened with white bodycolour".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/britain/exhibitions/holbein/rooms/room8.htm|title=Holbein in England – Tate|work=tate.org.uk|access-date=2012-01-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217103201/http://www.tate.org.uk/britain/exhibitions/holbein/rooms/room8.htm|archive-date=2011-12-17}}</ref> Chiaroscuro woodcuts began as imitations of this technique.<ref>David Landau & Peter Parshall, ''The Renaissance Print'', pp.&nbsp;180–84; Yale, 1996, {{ISBN|0-300-06883-2}} – discusses these at length. Also see Metropolitan external link.</ref> When discussing Italian art, the term sometimes is used to mean painted images in monochrome or two colours, more generally known in English by the French equivalent, [[grisaille]]. The term broadened in meaning early on to cover all strong contrasts in [[Illumination (image)|illumination]] between light and dark areas in art, which is now the primary meaning.

===Chiaroscuro modelling===
[[File:Raffael 045 detail .jpg|thumb|right|Detail of ''[[La Fornarina]]'' (1518–19) by [[Raphael]], shows delicate modelling chiaroscuro in the body of the model, for example in the shoulder, breast, and arm on the right]]
The more technical use of the term chiaroscuro is the effect of light modelling in [[painting]], [[drawing]], or [[printmaking]], where three-dimensional volume is suggested by the value gradation of colour and the analytical division of light and shadow shapes—often called "[[shading]]". The invention of these effects in the West, [[Sciography|"''skiagraphia''"]] or "shadow-painting" to the Ancient Greeks, traditionally was ascribed to the famous Athenian painter of the fifth century BC, [[Apollodorus (painter)|Apollodoros]]. Although few Ancient Greek paintings survive, their understanding of the effect of light modelling still may be seen in the late-fourth-century BC mosaics of [[Pella]], Macedonia, in particular the ''[[Stag Hunt Mosaic]]'', in the House of the Abduction of Helen, inscribed ''gnosis epoesen'', or 'knowledge did it'.

The technique also survived in rather crude standardized form in [[Byzantine art]] and was refined again in the [[Middle Ages]] to become standard by the early fifteenth-century in painting and [[manuscript illumination]] in Italy and Flanders, and then spread to all Western art.

According to the theory of the art historian [[Marcia B. Hall]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=Marcia B.|title=Color and Meaning: Practice and Theory in Renaissance Painting|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York, N.Y.|isbn=978-0-521-45733-0}}</ref> which has gained considerable acceptance,<ref>{{cite web|title=Four Canonical Painting Modes by APA|url=http://artpaintingartist.org/the-four-canonical-painting-modes-of-the-renaissance/}}. Retrieved June 18, 2015.</ref> chiaroscuro is one of four modes of painting colours available to Italian [[High Renaissance]] painters, along with ''[[cangiante]]'', [[sfumato]] and ''[[unione]]''.<ref>Hall, Marcia B., ''Rome'' (series "Artistic Centers of the Italian Renaissance"), pp.&nbsp;148–150, 2005, Cambridge University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-521-62445-9}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=gt5gtrqoKOIC&pg=PA148 google books]</ref>

The Raphael painting illustrated, with light coming from the left, demonstrates both delicate modelling chiaroscuro to give volume to the body of the model, and strong chiaroscuro in the more common sense, in the contrast between the well-lit model and the very dark background of foliage. To further complicate matters, however, the compositional chiaroscuro of the contrast between model and background probably would not be described using this term, as the two elements are almost completely separated. The term is mostly used to describe compositions where at least some principal elements of the main composition show the transition between light and dark, as in the Baglioni and Geertgen tot Sint Jans paintings illustrated above and below.

Chiaroscuro modelling is now taken for granted, but it has had some opponents; namely: the English [[portrait miniaturist]] [[Nicholas Hilliard]] cautioned in his treatise on painting against all but the minimal use we see in his works, reflecting the views of his patron Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]]: "seeing that best to show oneself needeth no shadow of place but rather the open light... Her Majesty... chose her place to sit for that purpose in the open alley of a goodly garden, where no tree was near, nor any shadow at all..."<ref>Quotation from Hilliard's ''Art of Limming'', c. 1600, in ''Nicholas Hilliard'', [[Roy Strong]], 2002, p.&nbsp;24, Michael Joseph Ltd, London, {{ISBN|0-7181-1301-2}}</ref>

In drawings and prints, modelling chiaroscuro often is achieved by the use of [[hatching]], or shading by parallel lines. Washes, [[stipple]] or dotting effects, and "[[surface tone]]" in printmaking are other techniques.

===Chiaroscuro woodcuts===
[[File:Mary Coriolano2.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Chiaroscuro woodcut of the Virgin and Child by [[Bartolommeo Coriolano]], created between 1630 and 1655 (digitally restored)]]

Chiaroscuro woodcuts are [[old master print]]s in [[woodcut]] using two or more blocks printed in different colours; they do not necessarily feature strong contrasts of light and dark. They were first produced to achieve similar effects to chiaroscuro drawings. After some early experiments in book-printing, the true chiaroscuro woodcut conceived for two blocks was probably first invented by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] in Germany in 1508 or 1509, though he backdated some of his first prints and added tone blocks to some prints first produced for monochrome printing, swiftly followed by [[Hans Burgkmair the Elder]].<ref>Landau and Parshall, 179–192; ''Renaissance Impressions: Chiaroscuro Woodcuts from the Collections of Georg Baselitz and the Albertina, Vienna'', [[Royal Academy]], London, March–June 2014, exhibition guide.</ref> The [[formschneider]] or block-cutter who worked in the press of [[Johannes Schott]] in [[Strasbourg]] is claimed to be the first one to achieve chiaroscuro woodcuts with three blocks.<!-- doubted by modern sources --><ref name=steiff>{{cite book |last=Steiff |chapter=Schott, Johannes|title=Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie |volume=32 |year=1891 |pages=402–404 |url=https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd124577008.html#adbcontent  |access-date=11 August 2021 |language=de}}</ref> Despite [[Vasari]]'s claim for Italian precedence in [[Ugo da Carpi]], it is clear that his, the first Italian examples, date to around 1516<ref>Landau and Parshall, 150</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wdct/ho_17.50.1.htm |title=Ugo da Carpi after Parmigianino: Diogenes (17.50.1) &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art |publisher=Metmuseum.org |date=2012-02-03 |access-date=2012-02-18}}</ref> But other sources suggest, the first chiaroscuro woodcut to be the ''Triumph of Julius Caesar'', which was created by [[Andrea Mantegna]], an Italian painter, between 1470 and 1500.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Italian Renaissance and Cultural Memory |last=Emison |first=Patricia A. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-107-00526-6 |location=New York |pages=105–107}}</ref> Another view states that: "Lucas Cranach backdated two of his works in an attempt to grab the glory" and that the technique was invented "in all probability" by Burgkmair "who was commissioned by the emperor Maximilian to find a cheap and effective way of getting the imperial image widely disseminated as he needed to drum up money and support for a crusade".<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/mar/11/revolutionary-chiaroscuro-woodcuts-british-exhibition | work=The Guardian | first=Mark | last=Brown | title=Revolutionary chiaroscuro woodcuts win first British exhibition | date=11 March 2014|access-date=11 March 2014}}</ref>

Other [[printmaker]]s who have used this technique include [[Hans Wechtlin]], [[Hans Baldung Grien]], and [[Parmigianino]]. In Germany, the technique achieved its greatest popularity around 1520, but it was used in Italy throughout the sixteenth century. Later artists such as [[Hendrick Goltzius|Goltzius]] sometimes made use of it. In most German two-block prints, the keyblock (or "line block") was printed in black and the tone block or blocks had flat areas of colour. In Italy, chiaroscuro woodcuts were produced without keyblocks to achieve a very different effect.<ref>David Landau & Peter Parshall, ''The Renaissance Print'', pp. 179–202; 273–81 & passim; Yale, 1996, {{ISBN|0-300-06883-2}}</ref>

===Compositional chiaroscuro to Caravaggio===
[[File:Geertgen tot Sint Jans, The Nativity at Night, c 1490.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[Nativity at Night (Geertgen tot Sint Jans)|Nativity at Night]]'' by [[Geertgen tot Sint Jans]], c. 1490, after a composition by [[Hugo van der Goes]] of c. 1470; sources of light are the infant Jesus, the shepherds' fire on the hill behind, and the angel who appears to them.]]
Manuscript illumination was, as in many areas, especially experimental in attempting ambitious lighting effects since the results were not for public display. The development of compositional chiaroscuro received a considerable impetus in northern Europe from the vision of the [[Nativity of Jesus]] of Saint [[Bridget of Sweden]], a very popular mystic. She described the infant Jesus as emitting light; depictions increasingly reduced other light sources in the scene to emphasize this effect, and the Nativity remained very commonly treated with chiaroscuro through to the Baroque. [[Hugo van der Goes]] and his followers painted many scenes lit only by candle or the divine light from the infant Christ. As with some later painters, in their hands the effect was of stillness and calm rather than the drama with which it would be used during the Baroque.

Strong chiaroscuro became a popular effect during the sixteenth century in [[Mannerism]] and [[Baroque]] art. Divine light continued to illuminate, often rather inadequately, the compositions of [[Tintoretto]], [[Paolo Veronese|Veronese]], and their many followers. The use of dark subjects dramatically lit by a shaft of light from a single constricted and often unseen source, was a compositional device developed by [[Ugo da Carpi]] (c. 1455 – c. 1523), [[Giovanni Baglione]] (1566–1643), and [[Caravaggio]] (1571–1610), the last of whom was crucial in developing the style of [[tenebrism]], where dramatic chiaroscuro becomes a dominant stylistic device.

===17th and 18th centuries===
[[File:Peter Paul Rubens - De kruisoprichting.JPG|thumb|right|upright|[[Peter Paul Rubens]]'s ''The Elevation of the Cross'' (1610–1611) is modelled with dynamic chiaroscuro.]]
Tenebrism was especially practiced in [[Spain]] and the Spanish-ruled Kingdom of [[Naples]], by [[Jusepe de Ribera]] and his followers. [[Adam Elsheimer]] (1578–1610), a German artist living in Rome, produced several night scenes lit mainly by fire, and sometimes moonlight. Unlike Caravaggio's, his dark areas contain very subtle detail and interest. The influences of Caravaggio and Elsheimer were strong on [[Peter Paul Rubens]], who exploited their respective approaches to tenebrosity for dramatic effect in paintings such as ''[[The Elevation of the Cross (Rubens)|The Raising of the Cross]]'' (1610–1611). [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] (1593–1656), a Baroque artist who was a follower of Caravaggio, was also an outstanding exponent of tenebrism and chiaroscuro.

A particular genre that developed was the nocturnal scene lit by candlelight, which looked back to earlier northern artists such as Geertgen tot Sint Jans and more immediately, to the innovations of Caravaggio and Elsheimer. This theme played out with many artists from the [[Low Countries]] in the first few decades of the seventeenth century, where it became associated with the [[Utrecht Caravaggisti]] such as [[Gerrit van Honthorst]] and [[Dirck van Baburen]], and with [[Flemish Baroque painter]]s such as [[Jacob Jordaens]]. [[Rembrandt van Rijn]]'s (1606–1669) early works from the 1620s also adopted the single-candle light source. The nocturnal candle-lit scene re-emerged in the [[Dutch Republic]] in the mid-seventeenth century on a smaller scale in the works of [[fijnschilder]]s such as [[Gerrit Dou]] and [[Gottfried Schalken]].

[[File:Gerrit van Honthorst - De koppelaarster.jpg|thumb|left|''The Matchmaker'' by [[Gerrit van Honthorst]], 1625]]
Rembrandt's own interest in effects of darkness shifted in his mature works. He relied less on the sharp contrasts of light and dark that marked the Italian influences of the earlier generation, a factor found in his mid-seventeenth-century etchings. In that medium he shared many similarities with his contemporary in Italy, [[Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione]], whose work in [[printmaking]] led him to invent the [[monotyping|monotype]].

Outside the Low Countries, artists such as [[Georges de La Tour]] and [[Trophime Bigot]] in France and [[Joseph Wright of Derby]] in England, carried on with such strong, but graduated, candlelight chiaroscuro. [[Watteau]] used a gentle chiaroscuro in the leafy backgrounds of his [[fêtes galantes]], and this was continued in paintings by many French artists, notably [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard|Fragonard]]. At the end of the century [[Fuseli]] and others used a heavier chiaroscuro for romantic effect, as did [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]] and others in the nineteenth century.