Editing Charles I of Hungary (section)

==Early years ==

===Childhood (1288–1300)===

Charles was the only son of [[Charles Martel of Anjou|Charles Martel, Prince of Salerno]], and his wife, [[Clemence of Austria]].{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Csukovits|2012a|p=112}} He was born in 1288; the place of his birth is unknown.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Csukovits|2012a|p=112}}{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=220}} Charles Martel was the [[firstborn]] son of [[Charles II of Naples]] and Charles II's wife, [[Maria of Hungary (1257-1323)|Mary]], who was a daughter of [[Stephen V of Hungary]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=110, 383}}{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=33}} After the death of her brother, [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]], in 1290, Queen Mary announced her claim to [[Hungary]], stating that the [[House of Árpád]] (the royal family of Hungary) had become extinct with Ladislaus's death.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=110}} However, her father's cousin, [[Andrew III of Hungary|Andrew]] also laid claim to the throne, although his father, [[Stephen the Posthumous]], had been regarded a bastard by all other members of the royal family.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=98, 110}} For all that, the Hungarian lords and prelates preferred Andrew against Mary and he was crowned king of Hungary on 23&nbsp;July 1290.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=110}}{{sfn|Bartl|Čičaj|Kohútova|Letz|2002|p=34}} She transferred her claim to Hungary to Charles Martel in January 1292.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=25}} The [[Babonići]], [[Frankopans]], [[Šubići]] and other [[Kingdom of Croatia (1102–1526)|Croatian]] and [[Slavonia]]n noble families seemingly acknowledged Charles Martel's claim, but in fact their loyalty vacillated between Charles Martel and Andrew&nbsp;III.{{sfn|Magaš|2007|p=59}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=207}}

Charles Martel died in autumn 1295, and his seven-year-old son, Charles, inherited his claim to Hungary.{{sfn|Kelly|2003|p=8}}{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=220}} Charles would have also been the lawful heir to his grandfather, Charles&nbsp;II of Naples, in accordance with the principles of primogeniture.{{sfn|Kelly|2003|p=8}}{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|pp=222–223}} However, Charles&nbsp;II, who preferred his third son, [[Robert the Wise|Robert]], to his grandson, bestowed the rights of a firstborn son upon Robert on 13&nbsp;February 1296.{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=224}} [[Pope Boniface VIII]] confirmed Charles&nbsp;II's decision on 27&nbsp;February 1296, excluding the child Charles from succeeding his grandfather in the [[Kingdom of Naples]].{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=224}} [[Dante Alighieri]] wrote of "the schemes and frauds that would attack"<ref>''The Divine Comedy, Dante Alighieri'' (Paradise, 9.3.), p. 667.</ref> Charles Martel's family in reference to Robert's alleged manoeuvres to acquire the right to inherit Naples.{{sfn|Kelly|2003|p=276}} The 14th-century historian [[Giovanni Villani]] also noted that his contemporaries were of the opinion that Robert's claim to Naples was weaker than his nephew's.{{sfn|Kelly|2003|p=276}} The jurist [[Baldus de Ubaldis]] refrained from setting out his position on the legitimacy of Robert's rule.{{sfn|Kelly|2003|p=276}}

=== Struggle for Hungary (1300–1308) ===
{{Further|Matthew III Csák|Ladislaus Kán||Amade Aba}}

[[File:Charles I of Hungary.jpg|thumb |right |alt=A young man riding a horse is accompanied by two elderly horsemen |Charles's arrival in Hungary,  depicted in the ''[[Illuminated Chronicle]]'']]
[[File:Oligarchs in the Kingdom of Hungary.png|thumb |right |alt=A dozen provinces depicted in a map |The provinces ruled by the [[Oligarch (Kingdom of Hungary)|oligarchs]] (powerful lords) in the early 14th century]]

Andrew III of Hungary made his maternal uncle, [[Albertino Morosini]], [[Duke of Slavonia]], in July 1299, stirring up the Slavonian and [[Croatian nobility|Croatian noblemen]] to revolt.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|pp=188–189}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=208}} A powerful Croatian baron, [[Paul I Šubić of Bribir|Paul Šubić]], sent his brother, [[George I Šubić|George]], to Italy in early 1300 to convince Charles II of Naples to send his grandson to Hungary to claim the throne in person.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=208}} The king of Naples accepted the proposal and borrowed 1,300 [[ounce]]s of gold from [[Florence|Florentine]] bankers to finance Charles's journey.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=25}}{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=228}} A [[Kingdom of Naples|Neapolitan]] knight of French origin, [[Philip Drugeth]], accompanied the twelve-year-old Charles to Hungary.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=144}} They landed at [[Split, Croatia|Split]] in [[Dalmatia]] in August 1300.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=25}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=111}} From Split, Paul Šubić escorted him to [[Zagreb]] where [[Ugrin Csák]] swore loyalty to Charles.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|pp=25–26}} Charles's opponent, Andrew&nbsp;III of Hungary, died on 14&nbsp;January 1301.{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=229}} Charles hurried to [[Esztergom]] where the Archbishop-elect, [[Gregory Bicskei]], crowned him with a provisional crown before 13&nbsp;May.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=128}}{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=188}} However, most Hungarians considered Charles's coronation unlawful because customary law required that it should have been performed with the [[Holy Crown of Hungary]] in [[Székesfehérvár]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=128}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|pp=25–26}}

Charles counted his regnal years from this coronation, but Hungary had actually disintegrated into about a dozen independent provinces, each ruled by a powerful lord, or oligarch.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=26}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=124}}{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=84}} Among them, [[Matthew III Csák|Matthew Csák]] dominated the northwestern parts of Hungary (which now form the western territories of present-day Slovakia), [[Amadeus Aba]] controlled the northeastern lands, [[Ivan Kőszegi]] ruled [[Transdanubia]], and [[Ladislaus Kán]] governed [[Transylvania]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=125–126}} Most of those lords refused to accept Charles's rule and proposed the crown to [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia]]'s son and namesake, [[Wenceslaus III of Bohemia|Wenceslaus]], whose bride, [[Elizabeth of Töss|Elisabeth]], was Andrew&nbsp;III's only daughter.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=33}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=128–129}} Although Wenceslaus was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár, the legitimacy of his coronation was also questionable because [[John Hont-Pázmány]], [[Archbishop of Kalocsa]], put the crown on Wenceslaus's head, although customary law authorized the [[Archbishop of Esztergom]] to perform the ceremony.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=188}}

After Wenceslaus's coronation, Charles withdrew to Ugrin Csák's domains in the southern regions of the kingdom.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}} Pope Boniface sent his legate, [[Pope Benedict XI|Niccolo Boccasini]], to Hungary.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}} Boccasini convinced the majority of the Hungarian prelates to accept Charles's reign.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}} However, most Hungarian lords continued to oppose Charles because, according to the ''[[Illuminated Chronicle]]'',{{sfn|Zsoldos|2013|p=212}} they feared that "the free men of the kingdom should lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church".<ref>''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle:'' (ch. 188.133), p. 143.</ref> Charles laid siege to [[Buda]], the capital of the kingdom, in September 1302, but Ivan Kőszegi relieved the siege.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=188}} Charles's charters show that he primarily stayed in the southern parts of the kingdom during the next years although he also visited Amadeus Aba in the fortress of [[Gönc]].{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=26}}

Pope Boniface who regarded Hungary as a fief of the [[Holy See]] declared Charles the lawful king of Hungary on 31&nbsp;May 1303.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=189}}{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|pp=232–234}} He also threatened Wenceslaus with [[excommunication]] if he continued to style himself king of Hungary.{{sfn|Dümmerth|1982|p=233}} Wenceslaus, left Hungary in summer 1304, taking the Holy Crown with him.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}} Charles met his cousin, [[Rudolph III of Austria]], in [[Pressburg]] (now Bratislava in Slovakia) on 24&nbsp;August.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=27}} After signing an alliance, they jointly invaded Bohemia in the autumn.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=28}} Wenceslaus who had succeeded his father in Bohemia renounced his claim to Hungary in favor of [[Otto III, Duke of Bavaria]] on 9&nbsp;October 1305.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=190}}

Otto was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár on 6&nbsp;December 1305 by [[Benedict Rád]], [[Bishop of Veszprém]], and [[Anthony, Bishop of Csanád]].{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=190}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=129–130}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=28}} He was never able to strengthen his position in Hungary, because only the [[Kőszegi family|Kőszegis]] and the [[Transylvanian Saxons]] supported him.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=129}} Charles seized Esztergom and many fortresses in the northern parts of Hungary (now in Slovakia) in 1306.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=28}} His partisans also occupied Buda in June 1307.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}} Ladislaus Kán, [[Voivode of Transylvania]], seized and imprisoned Otto in [[Transylvania]].{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=190}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=251}} An assembly of Charles's partisans confirmed Charles's claim to the throne on 10&nbsp;October, but three powerful lords—Matthew Csák, Ladislaus Kán, and Ivan Kőszegi—were absent from the meeting.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=28}} In 1308, Ladislaus Kán released Otto, who then left Hungary.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=251}} Otto never ceased styling himself King of Hungary, but he never returned to the country.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}}

[[Pope Clement V]] sent a new papal legate, [[Gentile Portino da Montefiore]], to Hungary.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}}{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=191}} Montefiore arrived in the summer of 1308.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}} In the next few months, he persuaded the most powerful lords one by one to accept Charles's rule.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=130}} At the [[Diet of Hungary|Diet]], which was held in the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] monastery in [[Pest, Hungary|Pest]], Charles was unanimously proclaimed king on 27&nbsp;November 1308.{{sfn|Solymosi|Körmendi|1981|p=191}}{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=29}} The delegates sent by Matthew Csák and Ladislaus Kán were also present at the assembly.{{sfn|Kristó|2002|p=29}}