Editing Chams (section)

==History==
{{disputed section|History sections|date=February 2022}}
[[File:VietnamChampa1.gif|thumb|right|Historical extent of the Kingdom of Champa (in green) around 1100 CE]]
[[File:Bayonnavalbat01.JPG|thumb|Depiction of fighting Cham naval soldier against the Khmer, stone relief at the [[Bayon]]]]

For a long time,{{Specify|date=March 2023}} researchers believed that the Chams had arrived by sea in the first millennium BC from [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]] and the [[Malay Peninsula]], eventually settling in central modern [[Vietnam]].<ref>V. Higham, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, River Books Co. Ltd., Bangkok 2014.</ref>

The original Chams are therefore the likely heirs of [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] navigators from [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]] and Borneo, whose main activities are commerce, transport and perhaps also piracy.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} Austronesian [[Chamic]] peoples might have migrated into present-day Central Vietnam around 3 kya to 2.5 kya (1,000 to 500 BC). With having formed a [[thalassocracy]] leaving traces in written sources, they invested the ports at the start of important trade routes linking [[India]], [[China]] and [[Indonesia]]n islands. Historians are now no longer disputing in associating the [[Sa Huynh culture]] (1000 BC–200 AD) with the ancestors of the Cham people and other Chamic-speaking groups.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Patterns and chronology of migration remain debated and it is assumed that the Cham people, the only Austronesian ethnic group originated from South Asia, arrived later in [[Indochina|peninsular Southeast Asia]] via Borneo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf|title=Origins and diversification: the case of Austroasiatic groups|publisher=Rogerblench.info|access-date= 25 January 2017}}</ref><ref>Anne-Valérie Schweyer ''Le Viêtnam ancien'' (Les Belles Lettres, 2005) p.6</ref> Mainland Southeast Asia had been populated on land routes by members of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic language family]], such as the [[Mon people]] and the [[Khmer people]] around 5,000 years ago. The Chams were accomplished Austronesian seafarers that from centuries populated and soon dominated [[maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-12/afst-gah120909.php|title=Genetic ancestry highly correlated with ethnic and linguistic groups in Asia|publisher=eurekalert|access-date=25 January 2017}}</ref> Earliest known records of Cham presence in Indochina date back to the second century CE. Population centers were located on the river outlets along the coast. As they controlled the import/export trade of continental Southeast Asia, they enjoyed a prosperous maritime economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cambodianscholars.org/the-cham-people/|title=The Cham People - Cambodian Village Scholars Fund|publisher=cambodianscholars.org|access-date=27 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202192033/https://cambodianscholars.org/the-cham-people/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf|title=THE AUSTRONESIAN SETTLEMENT OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA|publisher=Sealang|access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Loh|first2=Po-Ru|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Moorjani|first4=Priya|last5=Ko|first5=Ying-Chin|last6=Stoneking|first6=Mark|last7=Berger|first7=Bonnie|last8=Reich|first8=David|title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia|journal=Nature Communications|date=19 August 2014|volume=5|issue=1|page=4689|doi=10.1038/ncomms5689|pmid=25137359|pmc=4143916|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L}}</ref>

Cham folklore includes a [[Creation Myth|creation myth]] in which the founder of the Cham people was a certain [[Lady Po Nagar]]. According to Cham mythology, Lady Po Nagar was born out of sea foam and clouds in the sky.<ref name="Phat Giao">{{cite web|last1=Buu|first1=Tri|title=Holy Mother Thien YA Na - Mother of the Land|url=https://phatgiao.org.vn/thanh-mau-thien-y-a-na--ba-me-xu-so-d14037.html|website=Phatgiao.org.vn|date=2 April 2014|publisher=Buddhist portal of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha|access-date=25 July 2022}}</ref> However, in Vietnamese mythology, which adopted the goddess after taking over the Champa kingdom, her name is [[Thiên Y A Na]] and she instead came from a humble peasant home somewhere in the Dai An Mountains, [[Khánh Hòa Province]], spirits assisted her as she traveled to China on a floating log of sandalwood where she married a man of royalty and had two children. She eventually returned to Champa "did many good deeds in helping the sick and the poor" and "a temple was erected in her honor".{{sfn|Chapuis|1995|p=39}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vietspring.org/legend/sandalwood.html|title=Vietnamese History & Legends|publisher=Vietspring.org|access-date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129200123/http://vietspring.org/legend/sandalwood.html|archive-date=29 November 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Early history===
[[File:National Museum of Vietnamese History18.JPG|thumb|The Chams decorated their temples with stone reliefs depicting the gods such as [[garuda]] fighting the [[nāga]] (12th-13th century CE)]]
Like countless other political entities of Southeast Asia, the Champa principalities underwent the process of [[Greater India|Indianization]] since the early common era as a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction adopted and introduced cultural and institutional elements of India. From the 8th century onward, Muslims from such regions as [[Gujarat]] began to increasingly appear in trade and shipping of India. Islamic ideas became a part of the vast tide of exchange, treading the same path as Hinduism and Buddhism centuries before. Cham people picked up these ideas by the 11th century. This can be seen in the architecture of Cham temples, which shares similarities with the one of the [[Angkor]] temples. [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Ad-Dimashqi]] writes in 1325, "the country of Champa... is inhabited by [[Muslim]]s and idolaters. The Muslim religion came there during the time of Caliph [[Uthman]]... and [[Ali]], many Muslims who were expelled by the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] and by [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|Hajjaj]], fled there".{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}

The ''[[Daoyi Zhilüe]]'' records that at Cham ports, Cham women were often married to Chinese merchants, who frequently came back to them after trading voyages.<ref name="Heng2009">{{cite book|author=Derek Heng|title=Sino–Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLE_ToRyuLsC&pg=PA133|date=15 November 2009|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-89680-475-3|pages=133–}}</ref>{{sfn|Heng|2009|p=133}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%B7%E8%AA%8C%E7%95%A5|title=島夷誌略 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|website=zh.wikisource.org}}</ref> A Chinese merchant from [[Quanzhou]], Wang Yuanmao, traded extensively with Champa and married a Cham princess.{{sfn|Wicks|1992|p=215}}

In the 12th century, the Chams fought a series of wars with the [[Khmer Empire]] to the west. In 1177, the Chams and their allies launched an attack from the lake [[Tonlé Sap]] and managed to sack the Khmer capital of [[Angkor]]. In 1181, however, they were defeated by the Khmer King [[Jayavarman VII]].

===Encounter with Islam===
[[File:尖城_Chamcia_-_Couple_from_Champa_-_Boxer_Codex_(1590).jpg|thumb|Depiction of Cham people in the [[Boxer Codex]] from 1590]]

Islam first arrived in Champa around the ninth century; however, it did not become significant among the Cham people until after the eleventh century.<ref name=":0" />

Chams who migrated to [[Sulu]] were Orang Dampuan.{{r|Halili2004_46}} Champa and Sulu engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu where they were known as Orang Dampuan from the 10th-13th centuries. The Orang Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang Dampuan.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Filipino Moving Onward 5' 2007 Ed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SIq_FvJUr40C&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=RA3-PA18-IA1|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-4154-0|pages=3–}}</ref> The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philippine History Module-based Learning I' 2002 Ed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITLRpPrrcykC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA39|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-3449-8|pages=39–}}</ref> The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa.<ref name=Halili2004_46>{{cite book|author=Maria Christine N. Halili|year=2004|title=Philippine History|publisher=Rex Bookstore|isbn=978-9712339349|pages=46ff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA46}}</ref> Sulu received civilization in its Indic form from the Orang Dampuan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Study Skills in English for a Changing World' 2001 Ed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2H0KWiOADLQC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA23|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-3225-8|pages=23–}}</ref>

A number of Chams also fled across the sea to the [[Malay Peninsula]] and as early as the 15th century, a Cham colony was established in [[Malacca]]. The Chams encountered [[Sunni Islam]] there as the [[Malacca Sultanate]] was officially Muslim since 1414. The King of Champa then became an ally of the [[Johor Sultanate]]; in 1594, Champa sent its military forces to fight alongside Johor against the [[Portuguese Malacca|Portuguese occupation of Malacca]].{{sfn|Schliesinger|2015|p=18}} Between 1607 and 1676, one of the Champa kings converted to Islam and it became a dominant feature of Cham society. The Chams also adopted the [[Jawi alphabet]].{{sfn|Davidson|1991|p=105}}
[[File:Cham Woman - Chau Doc - Vietnam - 03.JPG|thumb|A Cham Muslim woman in [[Chau Doc]], Vietnam]]

Historical records in [[Indonesia]] showed the influence of Queen Dwarawati, a Muslim princess from the kingdom of Champa, toward her husband, Kertawijaya, the Seventh King of [[Majapahit Empire]], so that the royal family of the Majapahit Empire eventually converted to Islam, which finally led to the conversion to Islam of the entire region.<ref name="Philip Taylor 2007 78">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5YntZEIUHMC&q=putri+champa&pg=PA72|title=Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta: place and mobility in the cosmopolitan periphery|author=Philip Taylor|year=2007|publisher=NUS Press|page=78|isbn=978-9971-69-361-9|access-date=9 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="Agus Sunyoto 2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.atlaswalisongo.com/2015/06/sunan-ampel-485.html|title=Atlas Wali Songo (The Atlas of Nine Saint)|author=Agus Sunyoto|year=2014|publisher=Mizan|isbn=978-602-8648-09-7|access-date=14 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025741/http://www.atlaswalisongo.com/2015/06/sunan-ampel-485.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="John Renard 2009 343">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srZ5L70phwQC&q=brawijaya+champa&pg=PA343|title=Tales of God's Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation|author=John Renard|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|page=343|isbn=9780520258969|access-date=17 January 2016}}</ref> Chams Princess tomb can be found in [[Trowulan]], the site of the capital of the Majapahit Empire.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9ZOKjMxVdIC&q=suma%20oriental&pg=PA68|title=Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara|author=Slamet Muljana|year=2005|publisher=PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara|page=68|isbn=978-979-8451-16-4|access-date=9 January 2011}}</ref> In [[Babad Tanah Jawi]], it is said that the king of [[Brawijaya]] V has a wife named Dewi Anarawati (or Dewi Dwarawati), a Muslim daughter of the King of Champa (Chams).<ref name="Philip Taylor 2007 78"/><ref name="Agus Sunyoto 2014"/><ref name="John Renard 2009 343"/> Chams had trade and close cultural ties with the maritime kingdom of [[Srivijaya]] in the [[Malay Archipelago]] {{citation needed|date=January 2024}}.

Another significant figure from Champa in the history of Islam in Indonesia is Raden Rakhmat (Prince Rahmat) who's also known as [[Sunan Ampel]], one of [[Wali Sanga]] (Nine Saints), who spread Islam in [[Java]]. He is considered as a focal point of the Wali Sanga, because several of them were actually his descendants and/or his students. His father is [[Maulana Malik Ibrahim]] also known as Ibrahim as-Samarkandy ("Ibrahim Asmarakandi" to [[Javanese people|Javanese]] ears), and his mother is Dewi Candrawulan, a princess of Champa who's also the sister of Queen Dwarawati. Sunan Ampel was born in Champa in 1401 CE. He came to Java in 1443 CE, in order to visit his aunt Queen Dwarawati, a princess of Champa who married to Kertawijaya (Brawijaya V), the King of Majapahit Empire.<ref name="Philip Taylor 2007 78"/><ref name="Agus Sunyoto 2014"/><ref name="John Renard 2009 343"/> Local legend says that he built the Great Mosque of [[Demak, Indonesia|Demak]] ([[Masjid Agung Demak]]) in 1479 CE, but other legends attribute that work to [[Sunan Kalijaga]]. Sunan Ampel died in [[Demak, Indonesia|Demak]] in 1481 CE, but is buried in [[Ampel Mosque]] at [[Surabaya]], [[East Java]].<ref>[[:id:Sunan Ampel]]{{Circular reference|date=April 2019}}</ref>

Recent scholarship, however, has shown that widespread conversion to Islam came much later. Poorly studied artifacts such as Islamic graves (which simply could have been ships' ballast) have been reexamined to show that they were, in fact, Tunisian and not Cham. Poorly conducted linguistic research attempting to link vocabulary to Arabic has been debunked as well. Rather, there is no sound evidence for widespread conversion to Islam until the 16th century.<ref name="Haw, Stephen">{{cite journal|last1=Haw|first1=Stephen G.|title=Islam in Champa and the Making of a Fictitious History|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|date=2018|volume=28|issue=4|pages=717–747|doi=10.1017/S1356186317000219|s2cid=165122789|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/islam-in-champa-and-the-making-of-factitious-history/F3189E4E37FCDF4EE59A40353E133D19|access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref>

===Wars with the Vietnamese===
Between the rise of the Khmer Empire around 800 and the [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]'s [[Nam tiến|territorial expansion southwards]] from [[Jiaozhi]] and, later, [[Đại Việt]], Champa began to shrink. At a disadvantage against Dai Viet's army of 300,000 troops, the Cham army of 100,000 were overwhelmed.<ref>Oscar Chapuis (1995). A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 46. {{ISBN|0-313-29622-7}}. Retrieved 9 January 2011.</ref> In the [[Cham–Vietnamese War (1471)]], Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed, and the kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near [[Nha Trang]] with many Chams fleeing to [[Cambodia]].{{sfn|Juergensmeyer|Roof|2011|p=1210}}{{sfn|Schliesinger|2015|p=18}} Champa was no longer a threat to Vietnam, and some were even enslaved by their victors.<ref>Ben Kiernan (2009). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Yale University Press. p. 110. {{ISBN|0-300-14425-3}}. Retrieved 9 January 2011.</ref>

The Chams were [[matrilineality|matrilineal]] and inheritance passed through the mother.{{sfn|Hooker|2002|p=75}} Because of this, in 1499 the Vietnamese enacted a law banning marriage between Cham women and Vietnamese men, regardless of class.{{sfn|Kiernan|2008|p=111}}{{harv|Tạ|1988|p=137}}{{sfn|Watson Andaya|2006|p=82}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3FuAAAAMAAJ&q=from+wedding+women+of+the+Cham+race,35+it+was+also+based+on+national+security+considerations|title=The Vietnam forum, Issues 5-7|author=Yale University, Southeast Asia Studies|year=1985|publisher=Council on Southeast Asia Studies at Yale University|page=28|access-date=9 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ilqhy4Z3iwEC&pg=PA332|title=A companion to gender history|editor=Teresa A. Meade|editor-link=Teresa Meade|editor2=Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks|editor2-link=Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks|year=2006|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-4960-0|page=332|access-date=9 January 2011}}</ref> The Vietnamese also issued instructions in the capital to kill all Chams within the vicinity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/strange-parallels/0C2FAED1DB111C4094B37054B65DF39C|title=Strange parallels: Southeast Asia in global context, c 800-1830, Volume 1|author=Victor B. Lieberman|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|edition=illustrated|page=381|isbn=978-0-521-80496-7|access-date=15 May 2011}}</ref> More attacks by the Vietnamese continued and in 1693 the Champa Kingdom's territory was integrated as part of Vietnamese territory.{{sfn|Juergensmeyer|Roof|2011|p=1210}}

The trade in [[Vietnamese ceramics]] was damaged due to the plummet in trade by Cham merchants after the Vietnamese invasion.<ref name="SchottenhammerPtak2006">{{cite book|author1=Angela Schottenhammer|author2=Roderich Ptak|title=The Perception of Maritime Space in Traditional Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U9rWcNu89kgC&q=tran+dynasty+fujian&pg=PA138|year=2006|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05340-2|pages=138–}}</ref> Vietnam's export of ceramics was also damaged by its internal civil war, the Portuguese and Spanish entry into the region and the Portuguese conquest of Malacca which caused an upset in the trading system, while the carracks ships in the Malacca to Macao trade run by the Portuguese docked at Brunei due to good relations between the Portuguese and Brunei after the Chinese permitted Macao to be leased to the Portuguese.<ref name="BùiLong2001">{{cite book|author1=Minh Trí Bùi|author2=Kerry Nguyễn Long|title=Vietnamese Blue & White Ceramics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxjWAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=2001|publisher=Khoa học xã hội|page=176}}</ref>

When the [[Ming dynasty]] in China fell, several thousand Chinese refugees fled south and extensively settled on Cham lands and in Cambodia.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FP7iAAAAMAAJ&q=Much+of+the+settlement+of+Cham+and+Cambodian+lands,+however,+was+done+by+Chinese+refugees+fleeing+the+collapse+of+the+Ming+dynasty.+The+Chinese+were+actively+courted+by+the+Nguyen,+who+were+in+desperate+need+of+manpower+in+order+to|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 8|author=Encyclopædia Britannica, inc|year=2003|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=978-0-85229-961-6|page=669|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Most of these Chinese were young males, and they took Cham women as wives. Their children identified more with Chinese culture. This migration occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/flamingwombrepos0000anda|url-access=registration|quote=southern vietnam thousands of young chinese males brides cham communities.|title=The flaming womb: repositioning women in early modern Southeast Asia|author=Barbara Watson Andaya|year=2006|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2955-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/flamingwombrepos0000anda/page/146 146]|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>

Chams participated in [[Cambodian–Spanish War|defeating the Spanish invasion of Cambodia]]. Cambodian king [[Cau Bana Cand Ramadhipati]], also known as 'Sultan Ibrahim', launched the [[Cambodian–Dutch War]] to expel the Dutch. The Vietnamese [[Nguyen Lords]] toppled Ibrahim from power to restore Buddhist rule.

In the 18th century and the 19th century, Cambodian-based [[Islam in Thailand|Chams settled in Bangkok]].<ref name="Brown2013">{{cite book|author=Rajeswary Ampalavanar Brown|title=Islam in Modern Thailand: Faith, Philanthropy and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQkiAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|date=1 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-58389-8|pages=19–}}</ref>

===Fall of the Champa kingdom===
Further expansion by the Vietnamese in 1692 resulted in the total annexation of the Champa kingdom [[Panduranga (Champa)|Panduranga]] and dissolution by the 19th century Vietnamese Emperor, [[Minh Mạng]]. In response, the last Cham Muslim king, Pô Chien, gathered his people in the hinterland and fled south to [[Cambodia]], while those along the coast migrated to [[Trengganu]] ([[Malaysia]]). A small group fled northward to the Chinese island of [[Hainan]] where they are known today as the [[Utsul]]s. The king and his people who took refuge in Cambodia were scattered in communities across the [[Mekong Basin]]. Those who remained in the Nha Trang, Phan Rang, Phan Rí, and [[Phan Thiết]] provinces of central Vietnam were absorbed into the Vietnamese polity. Cham provinces were seized by the Nguyen Lords.<ref name="BridgmanWilliams1847">{{cite book|author1=Elijah Coleman Bridgman|author2=[[Samuel Wells Williams]]|title=The Chinese Repository|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgEMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA584|year=1847|publisher=proprietors.|pages=584–}}</ref>

After Vietnam invaded and [[History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|conquered Champa]], Cambodia granted refuge to Cham Muslims escaping from Vietnamese conquest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/76-po-cei-brei-fled-to-cambodia-in-1795-1796-to-find-support|archive-date= 2014-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325184700/http://chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/76-po-cei-brei-fled-to-cambodia-in-1795-1796-to-find-support|title=PO CEI BREI FLED TO CAMBODIA IN 1795-1796 TO FIND SUPPORT|author=Dr. Mark Phoeun|translator=Musa Porome|website=Cham Today|publisher=IOC-Champa}}</ref>

In 1832, the Vietnamese Emperor Minh Mang annexed the last Champa Kingdom. This resulted in the Cham Muslim leader [[Katip Sumat]], who was educated in [[Kelantan]], declaring a [[Jihad]] against the Vietnamese.<ref name="Hubert2012">{{cite book|author=Jean-François Hubert|title=The Art of Champa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3oMqrqSp1W4C&pg=PA25|date=8 May 2012|publisher=Parkstone International|isbn=978-1-78042-964-9|pages=25–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Raja Praong Ritual: A Memory of the Sea in Cham- Malay Relations|url=http://chamunesco.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=110:the-raja-praong-ritual-a-memory-of-the-sea-in-cham-malay-relations&catid=45:van-hoa&Itemid=120|website=Cham Unesco|access-date=25 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206042152/http://chamunesco.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=110%3Athe-raja-praong-ritual-a-memory-of-the-sea-in-cham-malay-relations&catid=45%3Avan-hoa&Itemid=120|archive-date=6 February 2015}}</ref><ref>(Extracted from Truong Van Mon, "The Raja Praong Ritual: a Memory of the sea in Cham- Malay Relations", in Memory And Knowledge of the Sea in South Asia, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, Monograph Series 3, pp, 97-111. International Seminar on Maritime Culture and Geopolitics & Workshop on Bajau Laut Music and Dance", Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences and the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, 23-24/2008)</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Dharma|first1=Po|author-link=Po Dharma|title=The Uprisings of Katip Sumat and Ja Thak Wa (1833-1835)|url=http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/78-the-uprisings-of-katip-sumat-and-ja-thak-wa-1833-1835|website=Cham Today|access-date=25 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626122653/http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/78-the-uprisings-of-katip-sumat-and-ja-thak-wa-1833-1835|archive-date=26 June 2015}}</ref> The Vietnamese coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus against their will to punish them and assimilate them to Vietnamese culture.<ref name="Wook2004">{{cite book|author=Choi Byung Wook|title=Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng (1820-1841): Central Policies and Local Response|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foZAdRgB-nwC&pg=PA141|year=2004|publisher=SEAP Publications|isbn=978-0-87727-138-3|pages=141–}}</ref> The second revolt led by [[Ja Thak Wa]], a Bani cleric, resulting in the establishment of a [[Champa (Ja Thak Wa)|Cham resistance]] which lasted from 1834 to 1835 until it was bloody crushed by Minh Mang's forces in July 1835. Only 40,000 Chams remained in the old Panduranga territory in 1885.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lafont|first=Pierre-Bernard|year=2007|title=Le Campā: Géographie, population, histoire|publisher=Indes savantes|isbn=978-2-84654-162-6|page=224}}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Bandera Front Alliberament Cham.svg|thumb|Flag of the FLC – ''{{lang|fr|Front de Libération du Champa}}'', which was active during the [[Vietnam War]]]]
At the division of Vietnam in 1954, the majority of Chams remained in South Vietnam. A handful of Chams who were members of the [[Viet Minh]] went North during the population exchange between North and South known as [[Operation Passage to Freedom]] – along with around ten thousand indigenous highland peoples – mainly Chamic and Bahnaric – from South Vietnam. The [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] during its early years (1954–1960) were actually more favorable toward ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples, compared to [[Republic of Vietnam]], attacking [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]'s Kinh chauvinist attitudes. Leaders of [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] at the time promised equal rights and autonomy, and by 1955 the North's national broadcast station [[Voice of Vietnam|Voice of Việt Nam]] began broadcasting propaganda radio in [[Rade language|Rhadé]], [[Bahnar language|Bahnar]], and [[Jarai language|Jarai]], to recruit support from the South's indigenous groups. These cultivation efforts later contributed to the foundation of the [[FULRO]] in 1964, although FULRO's objective was to fight against both North and South Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|year=2019|title=Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-190-05379-6|pages=412–419}}</ref>

In Cambodia, due to discriminatory treatments of the colonial and following Sihanouk governments, the Cham communities here sought communism. The Chams began to rise in prominence in Cambodian politics when they joined the communists as early as the 1950s, with a Cham elder, Sos Man joining the [[Indochinese Communist Party|Indochina Communist Party]] and rising through the ranks to become a major in the Party's forces. He then returned home to the Eastern Zone in 1970 and joined the [[Communist Party of Kampuchea]] (CPK), and he co-established the Eastern Zone Islamic Movement with his son, Mat Ly. Together, they became the mouthpiece of the Khmer Rouge and they encouraged the Cham people to participate in the revolution. Sos Man's Islamic Movement was also tolerated by the Khmer Rouge's leadership between 1970 and 1975. The Chams were gradually forced to abandon their faith and their distinct practices, a campaign which was launched in the Southwest as early as 1972.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2002|location=New Haven and London|page=258|edition=Second}}</ref>

In the 1960s various movements emerged calling for the creation of a separate Cham state in Vietnam. The [[Front for the Liberation of Champa]] (FLC) and the {{lang|fr|Front de Libération des Hauts plateaux}} dominated. The latter group sought greater alliance with other hill tribe minorities. Initially known as "{{lang|fr|Front des Petits Peuples}}" from 1946 to 1960, the group later took the designation "{{lang|fr|Front de Libération des Hauts plateaux}}" and joined, with the FLC, the "{{lang|fr|Front unifié pour la Libération des Races opprimées}}" ([[FULRO]]) at some point in the 1960s. Since the late 1970s, there has been no serious Cham secessionist movement or political activity in Vietnam or Cambodia.

During the [[Vietnam War]], a sizable number of Chams migrated to [[Peninsular Malaysia]], where they were granted sanctuary by the [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian government]] out of sympathy for fellow Muslims; most of them have now assimilated with [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] cultures.{{sfn|Juergensmeyer|Roof|2011|p=1210}}<ref name="Rie"/> The integrated community who self identifies as ''Melayu Champa'' ("[[Champa]] Malay") has dabbled into trades of [[agarwood]], clothing (especially in Kelantan) and fishery (in coastal [[Pahang]]) from their arrival in the late 1970s to the 80s.<ref name="Rie">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/sena.12305|pages=293–8|journal=Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism|date=December 2019|volume=19|issue=3|title=Becoming Malay: The Politics of the Cham Migration to Malaysia|first=Rie|last=Nakamura|s2cid=213134318}}</ref>

The Cham community suffered a major blow during the [[Cambodian genocide]] in [[Democratic Kampuchea]]. The [[Khmer Rouge]] targeted ethnic minorities like [[Chinese Cambodians|Chinese]], Thai, Lao, [[Vietnamese Cambodians|Vietnamese]] and the Cham people, though the Chams suffered the largest death toll in proportion to their population. Around 80,000 to 100,000 Chams out of a total Cham population of 250,000 people in 1975, died in the genocide.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14672715.1988.10412580|title=Orphans of genocide: The Cham muslims of Kampuchea under Pol Pot|year=1988|publisher=Ben Kiernan, Department of History and Politics, [[University of Wollongong]], Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia|doi=10.1080/14672715.1988.10412580|access-date=19 July 2021|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|journal=Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars|volume=20|issue=4|pages=2–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9Ro7b0tWz4C&pg=PA314|title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective|date=2003-07-07|access-date=17 June 2014|isbn=9780521527507|last1=Gellately|first1=Robert|last2=Kiernan|first2=Ben|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/11/19/the-question-of-genocide-and-cambodias-muslims|title=The question of genocide and Cambodia's Muslims|first=Clothilde Le|last=Coz|work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref>